Approaches

Question 1

How did the scientific study of the mind and behaviour begin?

Answer 1

Wundt was the first to attempt to use scientific testing by using standardised methods such as exposing ppts to the same stimulus of a ticking metronome to record time and creating replicable methods

Question 2

What is Introspection?

Answer 2

Wundt’s method
The first attempt to scientifically test conscious thought by attempting to break up specific thoughts + perceptions into basic structures of thought, image +sensations

Question 3

What is structuralism?

Answer 3

Wundt’s approach
Isolating consciousness into its component parts

Question 4

What did Wundt do?

Answer 4

Asked individuals to report their own conscious thought + perceptions to the same stimuli of a ticking metronome straight after presentation. This was an observation of consciousness via self-report and internal perceptions. He trained psychology students to make unbiased observations + used results to develop a theory of conscious thought.

Question 5

What is a strength of Wundt’s method of introspection? (AO3)

Answer 5

At the time considered, very scientific methods. All ppts received same set of standardised instructions, and tested with the same stimulus in the same order.
Used control environment of a lab to attempt to control extraneous variables and establish cause and effected between the stimulus and peoples thoughts, perceptions and sensations. This means Wundt’s work was regarded as reliable and valid at the time, helping to establish psychology as a separate science and stem away from it’s previous philosophical roots.

Question 6

What is a limitation of Wundt’s method of introspection? (AO3)

Answer 6

The data gathered is subjective, it varies greatly from person to person so it’s difficult to establish general principles
Unreliable as used self-report, may have answered due to social desirability bias. Lacks validity.

Question 7

What is the timeline of psycology?

Answer 7

Wundt—> psychodynamic —-> behaviourism –>SLT—>humanistic—> cognitive —> biological —> cognitive neuroscience

Question 8

What are the key assumptions of the behaviourist approach?

Answer 8

We are born as a blank slate
All behaviours are learnt based on a stimulus response relationship
Focuses on behaviour that is observable/measurable

Question 9

Describe Classical conditioning

Answer 9

Learning through association, between an unconditioned stimulus and a neutral stimulus, and was first demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov through showing how dogs could be conditioned to salivate to the sound of a bell. Initially, the dog would salivate (unconditioned response) at the sight of food (unconditioned stimulus). Pavlov paired this with a bell (neutral stimulus), so when the dog received food they would also hear the ringing. After repeat exposure, the dog would salivate (now conditioned response) when they heard the bell (conditioned stimulus).
Thus, Pavlov was able to show how a neutral stimulus can come to elicit a new learned response through association.

Question 10

Describe operant conditioning

Answer 10

B.F skinner suggested learning is an active process whereby humans and animals operate on their environment. In operant conditioning behaviour is shaped by consequences.
Skinner conducted an experiment in which rats where rewarded with a food pellet every time they pressed a lever within the box. Overtime, the frequency with which the rat presses the lever increases (+ve). If after time the rat then receive an electric shock for pressing the level, this will result in reduced frequency of lever presses.

Question 11

What is positive reinforcement?

Answer 11

Receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed.
Increases the likihood of that the behaviour will be repeated

Question 12

What is negative reinforcement?

Answer 12

When animals/humans avoid something unpleasant. The outcome is a positive experience
Increases the likihood of behaviour being repeated

Question 13

What is punishment?

Answer 13

an unpleasant consequence of behaviour
Decreases the likihood of behaviour being repeated

Question 14

What is reinforcement?

Answer 14

A consequence of behaviour that increases the likihood of behaviour being repeated.

Question 15

What is a strength of the behaviourist approach?

Answer 15

The principles of conditioning has led to the development of many practical applications that has aided society + the economy Token economy, rewards appropriate behaviour with tokens, used loyalty cards to shape consumer behaviour in reducing their spending whilst increase own profit. Systematic desentastion.

Question 16

What is a limitation of the behaviourist approach? (AO3)

Answer 16

The theory is environmentally deterministic. In suggesting that new learned behaviours are responses to the exposure of specific stimuli that we do not have conscious/cognitive control over, negating the role of free will in suggesting we are products of our environment. Little albert classically conditioned to fear rabbit in hearing a loud noise every time he saw one, responding in a predictable and measurable way that he had no conscious control over-automatic response. Past conditioning determines future outcomes, specific input leads to a predictable output Pessimistic, hard determinism.

OC/CC are reductionist explanations as they discount the role of biology and cognition. Phobias could be a result of neurotransmitter imbalance and not due to a learned response as shown in little albert study.

Question 17

How does behaviourist approach link to issues and debates?

Answer 17

Nurture-we learn via interaction with the environment
Nomothetic- OC/CC are general principles that can be applied universal to human and animals
Hard/environmental determinism

Question 18

What are the key assumptions of Social Learning Theory?

Answer 18

Agreed with behaviourists that behaviour is learnt from experience
Proposed learn through observation and imitation of others
Learning occurs directly through oc and cc
Also indirectly

Question 19

What is vicarious reinforcement?

Answer 19

Reinforcement that is not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour

Question 20

What is imitation and why does it occur?

Answer 20

Copying the behaviour of others, usually someone we look up to like a role model, who may have similar characteristic as you. This occurs as have cognitive assumption that behaviours they display are desirable.

Question 21

What are the 4 mediational processes?

Answer 21

4 criteria needed to be met for imitation to occur:
1. Attention to the role model
2. Retention-how well behaviour is remembered
3. Motor reproduction-the ability of the observer to perform the behaviour
4. Motivation- the will to imitate the behaviour, often determined by whether behaviour rewarded or punished

First 3 results in acquisition of the new response
Last one required if the behaviour is to be demonstrated.
Expectations of future outcomes are stored as internal mental processes 9added to our schema)

Question 22

Describe banduras research

Answer 22

Recorded the behaviour of 72 young children. Three conditions, one watched adults behaviour aggressively towards a bobo doll 9hit it with a hammer, shouted abuse at it) , one watched adults behaviour in a non-aggressive way, and one had no role-model.

Children in aggressive group then observed behaving much more aggressively towards then doll then those who had a non-aggressive adult.

In another variation showed videos of adults behaving aggressively towards the doll. In one condition adults praised for it, in another punished, and control saw aggression with no consequence.
order of aggression 1st–>3rd–>2nd

Question 23

How does banduras study support the theory?

Answer 23

As the children imitated the specific behaviours displayed by the role model, showing an observable behaviour change. They displayed retention in the actions shown towards the doll and then imitated them. Children more likely to imitate the same sex role model as research suggests.

Question 24

What is modelling?

Answer 24

Imitating the behaviour of a role-model
Precise demonstration of behaviour that may be immitted by the observer

Question 25

What is a strength of SLT (AO3)?

Answer 25

Theory has led to the understanding that pro and anti social behaviour can be learnt via observational learning and has ensured positive role models are used in the media. Also led to the introduction of the watershed, in which no violence/ sexual content before 9pm in UK television. Age restrictions have been placed on violent video games/ films. Both introduced based on the understanding that young children can be influenced by the content-which in turn could contribute to higher levels of violence in children as they grow up.

Less reductionist as considers both social + cogitative factors in shaping behaviours. SLT recognises the influence of mental representations + motivation and therefore takes into account cognitive process-more holistic + complete explanation.

Question 26

What is a limitation of SLT? (AO3)

Answer 26

Not a complete explanation as negates the impact of biological influences, such as hormones, testosterone and genetics. Therefore it is too simplistic to explain complex behaviours such as aggression via SLT in isolation-there are other factors that contribute to our behaviour and there are individual differences in relation to how influenced some people are by role models compared to others.

Still environmentally deterministic. SLT identifies that our behaviours are learnt by the observation + imitation of role model- we are therefore driven by our external natural environment. As a children do not have much free will over what you are exposed too and so our dispositions are products of the rm that we have been exposed to. This suggests as a child we have little free will and our behaviours are determined by our enviroment.

Question 27

What are the key assumptions of the cognitive approach?

Answer 27

In direct contrast with the behaviourist approach, the cognitive approach argues internal processes can, and should be studied scientifically.
Theoretical models are used to make inferences about mental processes
Use experimental methods to investigate the effect of different stimuli on cognitive processes, where causes can be isolated and outcomes observed
Mental processes of the mind are separate from the brain

Question 28

What internal processes do cognitive psychologists study?

Answer 28

Schema, memory, perception, language

Question 29

What are schema?

Answer 29

packages of ideas and information developed through experience. They act as a mental framework for the interpretation of incoming information received by the cognitive system.

Enables us to process lots of information quickly, so used as a mental shortcut that prevents us from being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli, but also may distort our interpretations of sensory information, leading to perceptual errors.

Question 30

What is the information processing approach?

Answer 30

A theoretical model used to explain internal mental processes. It suggests that information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages. These include input, storage and retrieval. This type of processing can be seen in the multi-store model. Additionally, this approach uses computer analogies to express the similarities between information handling, suggesting the mind is the central processing unit. A computer model would involve actively programming a computer to see if such instructions produce a similar output to humans. If they do we can suggest that similar mental processes are going on in the human mind. These models have been used in the ongoing development of A.I.

Question 31

Define cognitive neuroscience

Answer 31

The scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes by combing cognition and biology in the form of brain mapping techniques.

Question 32

Explain the emergence of cognitive neuroscience

Answer 32

Mapping brain areas to specific functions has a long history in psychology, with Paul Broca identifying how damaged to the left frontal lobe (Broca’s area) resulted in difficult producing speech. In the last 25 years, with advances in brain imaging techniques such as fMRI an PET scans, that scientist have been able to systematically observe and describe the neurological basis of mental processes (Buckner + Peterson using PET scans to show episodic and semantic memory resides in opposite sides of the prefrontal cortex).
This has recently expanded to include using computer-generated models to develop mind-mapping techniques called ‘brain fingerprinting’.

Question 33

What are the strengths of the cognitive approach? (AO3)

Answer 33

Practical value- treat depression through CBT/ impotent contribution to the field of AI and the development of thinking machines (robots)

Uses highly controlled lab experiments to support the research into cognitive processes. These use standardises procedures and control extraneous variables to clearly establish cause and effect between a stimulus and mental processes, producing reliable and objective data. Moreover, the emergence of cognitive science has allowed for use of machines such as fMRI and PET scans, to provide supporting biological data. The results of these cannot be faked, so are objective and can falsify the theory. This means the cognitive approach has a credible scientific basis.

Question 34

What is a limitation of the cognitive approach? (AO3)

Answer 34

May be over reliant on lab experiments. As private processing can only be investigated via the observation of behaviour, many hypothesis can be deemed to abstract and theoretical, as it is difficult to provide falsifiable evidence. Researches cannot be sure what a participant is thinking, so not a valid way of measuring as can’t be 100% sure they’re not lying. Also can be difficult to verbalise cognition. Instead cognitive psychologists have to make inferences about the internal metal processes that are happening, which may be inaccurate. Lacks internal validity.

Has machine reductionism, as ignores the effect of human emotion and external circumstances on our ability to process information. For example, it has been identified by Johnson + Scott that anxiety has a specific influence on the accuracy of recall on eye witness testimony. Such use of the computer analogy fails to account for thus and is therefore too simplistic.

Question 35

What is the biological approach?

Answer 35

Combines psychology + biology to provide a physiological explanation for human behaviour. It tries to explain how we think, feel + behaviour in terms of physical factors within the body.

Question 36

What are the key assumptions of the biological approach?

Answer 36

Everything psychological is at first biological
The mind lives in the brain
Psychologists should study the brain, nervous system, genes and hormones

Question 37

Biological approach (AO1)

Answer 37

One key assumption of the approach is that our behaviour is influenced by our genetic material which has evolved like our physical characteristics through evolutionary adaption to meet the demands of our environment. Darwin proposed a theory of natural selection, in which any genetically determined behaviour that enhances an individuals survival and reproduction will continue in future generations. This occurs naturally, the selection simply occurs becomes some traits give the possessor certain advantages. The possessor is more likely to survive reproduce and pass on these traits. If the individual survives but doesn’t reproduce. The traits do not remain in in the gene pool for successive generations.

The biological approach focus on the influence of genes on behaviour. The genotype refers to the particular set of genes that a person possess, and the phenotype is the way genes are expressed through physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics. To investigate whether certain psychological characteristics have a genetic basis or not, twin studies are used. This is achieved by analysing concordance rates. If a characteristic is genetic we would expect all monozygotic twins to be concordant as they share 100% of their genes, and less for dizygotic twins as they share about 50% of their DNA. In both cases the envitroment is assumed to be constant.

Question 38

What is a strength/limations of the biological approach? (AO3)

Answer 38

There is research support for genetics influencing behaviour. Nesdat found a concordance rate of 68% for MZ and 31% for DZ for OCD. This suggests their is a genetic basis for OCD, which has increased the practical value of the approach as has led to the development of SSRIs to treat mental health conditions, approving the lives of sufferers and thus aiding society.

However not 100% CCR so can’t be fully due to genetic pre-disposition, must also be influenced by the environment. Focus on genetic research is therefore problematic as very complex, and not just one gene is responsible, can be polygenic. Suggests that behaviour is a result of an interaction between nature and nurture. This approach only looks at the role of nature so is therefore too simplistic in isolation as negates the role of environmental influences. It’s biologically deterministic in that it sees human behaviour as governed by internal, genetic causes, which we have no free will over. This creates a pessimistic view as can be damaging to someone with a pre-disposition for depression. Additionally, a purely genetic argument becomes problematic when considering crime in creating a biological Albi. Overall, the biological approach is too simplistic and ignores the mediating effects of the environment.

Question 39

What are the key assumptions of the psychodynamic approach? (introduction)

Answer 39

Freud developed a theory of personality development. Personality is defined as aspects of human behaviour that vary from person to person but remain fairly constant for each individuals-this is therefore an idiographic approach. The essence of the psychodynamic approach is to explain behaviour in terms of unconscious forces that drive us. Freud was the first to challenge the view that psychological disorders are a result of physical illness, that they can manifest from internal conflicts + repressions, and this became the paradigm for a long time. Though some of his methods + ideas were critised, he is considered the father of psychology and his work underpins a lot of modern psychotherapy.

Question 40

Describe the role of the unconscious

Answer 40

Freud suggested that the part of our mind that we are aware of, the conscious, which contains all thoughts we are aware of and acceptable thoughts/feelings, is merely the tip of the iceberg. The majority of our mind is made up of the unconscious, which is a vast storehouse of biological drives and instincts that has a significant influences on our behaviour and personality. The unconscious also contains threating + disturbing memories that have been repressed. These can be assessed via dreams/ parapraxes. The half-way house between the conscious + unconscious is the preconscious, which contains thoughts and memories that are not currently in conscious awareness4es but we can assess if desired.

Question 41

Describe the structure of personality

Answer 41

Freud described personality as a ‘tripartite’, consisting of three parts:
ID- primitive part, operates on the pleasure principle, present at birth. It contains energy to fulfil our instincts, e.g sexual + aggressive drives. Thought life ID is entirely selfish and demands instant gratification of it’s needs. Also defends conscious against displeasure

Ego- works on the reality principle, and is the mediator between the other 2 parts. Develops at the age of 2, function is to reduce the conflict between the demands of the ID + Superego and it manages this by employing a number of defence mechanisms.

Superego- formed at the end of the phallic stage, around 5 years. Our internal sense of right and wrong. Based on the morality principle it represent s the moral standards of a child’s same sex parent + punishes the ego for wrong doing through guilt

Question 42

What are defence mechanisms?

Answer 42

Used to help the ego balance the conflicting demands between the ID and the superego. These are unconscious and ensure that the Ego is able to prevent us from being overwhelmed by temporary threats or traumas. However, they often involve some form of distortion of reality and as long term solution are regarded as psychologically unhealthy and undesirable.

Repression- punishing uncomfortable thoughts out of the conscious
Denial- claiming what is true is actually false
Displacement- redirecting emotions on to a substitute target

Question 43

What are the psychosexual stages?

Answer 43

Freud claimed a child’s development occurred in 5 stages. Each stage is marked by a different conflict that the child must resolve in order to progress successfully to the next stage. Any psychosexual conflicts that is unresolved leads to fixation where the child becomes ‘stuck’ and carries certain behaviours and conflicts associated with that stage throughout adult life.

Question 44

What is the oedipus complexs?

Answer 44

Freud argued that the unconscious mind causes a rivalry between child and same sex parent for attention/affection of opposite sex parent. Suggests a sexual jealousy that is far more complex than how we consider sexual relationships. Resolution of Oedipus complex is a critical part of personality development + stage where the superego begins to develop + provide a moral aspect to personality. Boy sets out to resolve this problem by identifying with dad, adopting his values, attitudes + behaviour. The consequence of this is that the boy takes on the male gender role + adopts an ego ideal + values that become the superego.

Question 45

What is a limitation of psychodynamic approach? (AO3)

Answer 45

Freuds theory is almost impossible to test scientifically as the states of consciousness/ tripart of personality are all abstract concepts that cannot be tested in an objective way. This means the theory is unscientific and subjective and so is considered to be a pre-science, as has little scientific evidence to support it. This means that the approach is unfalsifiable as cannot be empirically tested.

An example of physic determinism as suggests all driven by our death + life drive which we can’t control. In addition to this we are products of internal conflicts that happen during the psychosexual stages, which again we can’t control our unconscious or the treatment we had during childhood, therefore Freud would say we have no free will + are products of unconscious drives + conflicts that we can’t directly influence ourselves.

Question 46

What is a strength of psychodynamic approach? (AO3)

Answer 46

Case study support of Anna O, who had a phobia of water. Via association (Freudian analysis), she uncovered a childhood memory of her sister pushing her into the water off the boat + her struggling to swim. This was interpreted as the root cause for her anxiety caused by the active process of repression. After hearing the explanation, her symptoms faded- this process is know as catharsis. This proves evidence support for defence mechanisms, increasing the validity of the theory.

This also demonstrates the high particular value of the approach. Freud developed psychoanalysis, the association form of therapy, designed to assess the unconscious via a clients description of their dreams. It can be used to treatment mild mental health conditions such as anxiety and depression. It is the forerunner to many modern day therapies and therefore demonstartes how influential the psychodynamic approach has been, having an overall positive contribution to society and psycology.

Question 47

What are the key assumptions of the humanistic approach?

Answer 47

Assumes we are inherently good
Studies the whole person from the perspective of the individual
Active agents who can determine are own development.

Question 48

Describe the humanistic approach (A01)

Answer 48

Humanistic psychology is know as the third force in psychology, alongside behaviourism and the psychodynamic approach. It was developed in response to the critismis of other approaches being too deterministic, so emphasised the role of free will in describing people as active agents who can determine their own development, despite still being affected by internal and external forces. Humanistic psychology believes people are self-determining and therefore have free will. They believe that, because everyone is unique, psychology should be concerned with the study of subjective experiences, rather then general laws. This principle has lead to the approach to be called the person-centred approach.

Question 49

What is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?

Answer 49

Maslow, a humanistic psychologists, argued we have a hierarchy of needs. The lowest level of these is concerned with our basic biological needs, know as defiance needs. After that we need to satisfy our safety and security needs followed by love + belonginess and then self-esteem. We have an innate tendency to try and fulfil our potential by trying to satisfy the needs progressively up the hierarchy. All four deficiency needs must be met before an individual can work towards self-actualisation, a growth need, and reach their full potential.

Question 50

What did Rodgers suggest?

Answer 50

Rogers, another humanistic psychologists, discussed the concept of personal growth which is concerned with moving towards becoming fulfilled, satisfied and goal-orientated. He argued that, in order to achieve this there must be congruence between our self (the way we see ourself) and ideal self (what we want to be). He suggested that one of the reasons people have problems in later life is due to the lack of unconditional positive regard in childhood, leading to feelings of worthlessness and thus a state of incongruence. When there is incongruity between the self = ideal self, the person is motivated to close the gap. This may involve distorting reality, avoidance or striving to meet conditions of worth. This can led to anxiety + depression.
Rodgers developed a therapy know as client-centred therapy in which he provided clients with unconditional positive regard to help those people who have too big a gap between the self and ideal self to close it.

Question 51

What are the limitations of the humanistic approach? (AO3)

Answer 51

Untestable concepts. Includes a no. of vague, abstract ideas such as self-actualisation and congruence, which while useful therapeutic tools are impossible to test in a scientific way, and therefore the approach lacks empirically evidence to support its claims.

Cultural bias towards individualist cultures. Collectivist cultures, who promote interdependence rather then independence might have a different set of priorities and therefore wouldn’t identify with the values of the approach. Additionally, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs suggest that people from lower developed countries that may be war-torn may be unable to reach safety needs/ basic physiological needs will not achieve self-actualisation. The implication of this could be that collectivist cultures are seen as deficient in comparison to Individualists’, as their members are less likely to be towards the top o the hierarchy of needs.

Question 52

What are the strengths of the humanistic approach? (AO3)

Answer 52

A strength of the HA is that it allows for personal development + change throughout the lifespan = acknowledges that we can change as a consequence of our environment, which differs from the child-focused stance of the psychodynamic approach. It is therefore much more optimistic approach as acknowledges the role of free will in that a persons behaviour is controlled by them + not by some external force beyond their control.