Approaches Flashcards
What are the 4 main assumptions of the Cognitive approach?
- The mind uses rules to interpret new information, this is known as the schema.
- The mind is like a computer, it inputs, stores and then retrieves information, this is known as the information processing approach.
- Models of memory like the WMM have been made to help us better understand these processes.
- These models have been analysed using brain scanning techniques.
What are internal mental processes?
Internal mental processes are the way in which information is used in the mind, this included conscious and unconscious thoughts. Typical areas of research for cognitive psychologists are attention, perception and memory.
What are schemas?
Mental representation of situations, people, events and objects that we store in the LTM and provides us with a guide for action in future events. They help us organise and interpret the world.
What does schema theory suggest?
That the act of remembering things is the reconstruction of all the bits stored.
What are the positives of schemas?(2)
- Schemas allow us to engage with the world around us without becoming overwhelmed by the sensory information. Assigning an object to a schema like a chair, means that we dont have to consciously work out exactly what each object is.
- They also help us predict the future.
What are the negatives of schemas? (2)
- Schemas can cause inaccurate recall.
Assumptions due to schemas can influence memory which is a big problem for EWT. People feel that they are remembering correctly but their recall has actually been altered by leading questions. - Negative schemas can lead to poor mental health.
Beck argued that people with depression have faulty schemas that bias the way they view themselves, others and the future. For example, they always view themselves as being inadequate or unworthy.
What is the evaluation for schemas leading to real life applications?
Research into schema theory has led to useful real life applications.
Loftus found that people’s EWT’s were heavily influenced by their schemas. For example, she found that participants recalled the speed a car was travelling in a video differently depending on which verb was used to describe the speed. This means that the verb changed their mental representation.
This research has influenced courts to rely less heavily on EWT’s as it was understood that they may be flawed. Therefore, less people are now wrongly imprisoned.
What is disequilibrium?
This occurs when our schemas do not allow us to make sense of something new, so we must adapt to a new situation by exploring and learning something new.
What is assimilation?
This is when new information does not radically alter our understanding of a topic so we incorporate it into an already existing schema.
What is accommodation?
This is a form of learning that takes place when a new piece of information changes our understanding of a topic so one or more schemas need to be formed and we radically alter existing schemas to deal with new information.
What are theoretical and computer models used for?
To explain and make inferences about unseen mental processes.
What are theoretical models?
Models like the WMM (Baddeley and Hitch) and the MSM are simplified representations based on current research evidence. They are often pictorial using arrows and boxes to indicate cause and effect or the stages of a mental process.
Experiments are usually conducted to test the predictability of a model and results are used to draw inferences about the process.
What has the MSM done?
Furthered our understanding of encoding, capacity and duration of the SM, STM, and LTM
What are computer models?
Computer models are analogies between the operation of a computer’s central processing unit running software, and the human brain conducting internal mental processes.
What are the 4 stages of the computer analogy for memory?
- Information is input through the senses like a keyboard and encoded into memory.
- RAM (random access memory) is similar to working memory. Like RAM, working memory is a temporary workspace where information is cleared after the task is completed.
- Storage: The LTM is like how a computer stores information in a hard drive, they both have potentially unlimited duration.
- Output: processes are responsible for preparing appropriate responses.
What is the first part of the double cognitive approach eval about scientificness.
An advantage to the cognitive approach is that it is considered a scientific approach.
This is due to the highly controlled experiments for example, many of the studies supporting models of memory were conducted in lab settings, with large sample sizes and standardised materials. This means that claims made by cognitive psychologists are backed up with evidence of high internal validity.
What is the second part of the double eval for cognitive approach about scientifiness?
However, internal mental processes can not be directly observed which means that sometimes, cognitive psychologists must go beyond the research evidence and make inferences.
Inferences are essentially educated guesses which may be wrong. This reliance on assumptions means that the cognitive approach can sometimes be viewed as less scientific than others like behaviourism and biological psychology. This is because their theories are directly based on observable behaviours and physical processes. However, inferences allow cognitive psychologists to explore areas inaccessible to other approaches like problem solving, memory, attention and perception.
Therefore, although internal mental processes are not directly observable, advances in neuro-imaging have led to many inferences being supported.
What is the computer model eval about machine reductionism?
Computer models have been criticised for being overly simplistic (machine reductionism).
Critics argue that the human brain is significantly more complex than a computer and the human mind is capable of consciousness and emotions. Additionally, the human memory is flawed and reconstructive whereas the memory of a computer stores and retrieves information with perfect accuracy.
Therefore, they may not be able to explain the complexities of the human brain.
What is the evaluation for theoretical models generating testable hypotheses?
Theoretical models generate testable hypotheses which allow each assumption to be systematically and scientifically tested.
If the behaviour matches the model´s prediction, it suggests that the model is valid. If the behaviour does not match the predictions, then the model can be adjusted or rejected.
What is the aim of cognitive neuroscience?
Aims to scientifically identify and examine neurological structures and chemical processes in the brain that are responsible for internal mental processes.
What 2 types of scans does cognitive neuroscience use and example?
- PET scan- Tulving et al (1994) asked participants to do various different tasks whilst using a PET scanner. He found that episodic memories were recalled from the right PFC and semantic memories were recalled from the left PFC.
- FMRI= measures Brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow.
- Supports Broca 1860 who found that damage to the frontal lobe impaired speech production, this is now known as Broca’s area.
What is the evaluation for cognitive neuroscience scanning techniques showing neural correlates?
A strength of scanning techniques is that they can indicate neural correlates associated with different disorders.
For example, high dopamine levels and low serotonin levels have been implicated with OCD.
This is useful as treatments can be indicated like OCD drugs which lower dopamine and increase serotonin have been developed.
What are the three main assumptions of the psychodynamic approach?
- The origin of mental illness is psychological
- A person’s unconscious is crucial in determining behaviour
- Childhood experiences are an important part of adult development. Distressing events may be a part of the unconscious which can be expressed as abnormal behaviours.
What are the 3 levels of consciousness?
Conscious, preconscious and unconscious
What is the conscious?
The part of us that we can access.
E.g thoughts and perceptions
What is the preconscious?
Thoughts and ideas that we may becomes aware of due to dreams or a slip of the tongue.
E.g memories or stored knowledge.
What is the unconscious?
Like an iceberg, the biggest part you cant see.
Comprised of mental processes that are inaccessible to the consciousness but influence judgements, feelings and behaviour.
Traumatic experiences are forced into the unconscious through defence mechanisms but can bubble through to the surface and affect behaviour.
E.g fears, sexual desires and immoral urges.
What are the parts of the tripartite personality structure?
The ID, the ego and the super ego
What is the ID?
- Solely unconscious
- known as the pleasure principle
- present at birth
- it is the unconscious drive towards reproduction and aggression.
- it demands instant gratification. E.g if the person is hungry, then the ID will demand they eat there and then.
What is the ego?
- known as the reality principle as it mediates between the impulsive demands of the id and the moralistic demands of the super ego.
- primarily conscious part of personality and develops around the phallic stage and the internalisation of societal rules.
What is the super ego?
- Known as the morality principle
- Develops after socialisation and around age 5
- The conscience = the internalisation of societal rules and breaking them makes you feel guilty.
- The ego-ideal = what a person strives for, driven by parental standards.
What happens when the ID, ego and super ego cannot be balanced?
Abnormal behaviours take place like anxiety disorders.
What are defence mechanisms?
Processes that work unconsciously to distort reality to reduce anxiety.
Why do we need defence mechanisms?
They are useful when a person is faced with a situation that they cannot deal with rationally.
They prevent a person from becoming aware of unpleasant thoughts or feelings associated with a traumatic event.
What are the 3 defence mechanisms?
Repression, denial and displacement
What is repression?
Where traumatic memories are forced into the unconscious so the person no longer feels pain or guilt. However, they can still sometimes break through and affects behaviour.
E.g a child abused by their parents may have no memory of this but still struggles to form relationships.
What is denial?
The refusal to accept reality to avoid having to deal with painful feelings.
E.g An alcoholic may deny having a drinking problem even after being arrested multiple times.
What is displacement?
The unconscious redirection of hostile thoughts and feelings towards an easier target when you feel unable to express them in front of the person they are meant for . This is taking it out on a less threatening victim. E.g you are angry at your boss but don’t want to be fired so shout at the intern instead.
What are the 5 stages of psychosexual development?
Freud believed that the personality developed though a sequence of 5 stages:
1. Oral
2. Anal
3. Phallic
4. Latency
5. Genital
What did Freud believe about sexual energy?
He believed that the person feels tension due to a build up of sexual energy, which is the most important force in development, so pleasure comes from its discharge. This is expressed though different ways at each stage.
What is an unconscious conflict?
A child will experience an unconscious conflict that must be resolved at each psychosexual stage. If unresolved, they become fixated which can alter their personality and even result in mental disorders called neuroses.
What is the first psychodynamic stage?
Oral from 0-1 years.
- The primary source of pleasure comes from the mouth and sucking due to breastfeeding.
- The conflict happens during weaning where the infant learns that it cannot control the environment so develops delayed gratification.
- Consequences of fixation are:
Smoking, overeating, biting nails and being sarcastic and critical.
What is the 2nd psychosexual stage?
Anal from 1-3 years
- Primary source of pleasure= membranes of anal region
- Major conflict= potty training as child becomes aware of demands others are placing on them which causes ego to start developing.
- consequence of too strict potty training = being anally retentive.
- consequence of fixation=
1. Anally retentive.
2. Overly fastidious
3. Perfectionist and obsessive
4. Or being anally explosive and thoughtless
What is the 3rd psychosexual stage?
Phallic stage from 3-6 years.
- Primary source of pleasure= genitals.
- Oedipus complex = boy desires mother and wants to possess her so competes with father in a hostile way. Boy then develops castration anxiety so to resolve this, identifies with father which helps suppress erotic feelings for mother.
- The electra complex takes place for girls where Carl Jung said girls are attached to their father so dislike mother but Freud disagreed with this and said that girls desire their father and get penis envy so want to be more like him and compete with mother. But desire for penis is replaced with desire for a baby so identifies with mother.
- Consequences of fixation=
1. Phallic personality
2. Vain + self assured
3. Narcissistic
4. Wreckless
5. Possibly homosexual.
What is the 4th psychosexual stage?
Latency 6-12 years
- Development of other activities means less concentration on sexual areas.
- Conflicts from other stages are repressed meaning that many children are unable to remember their early years.
What is the 5th psychosexual stage?
Genital from puberty onwards.
- Primary source of pleasure= through the pursuit of heterosexual relationships.
- Sexual energy is now fixed in genitals and directs us towards sexual intercourse and the beginnings of life.
- Consequences of fixation=
1. Difficulty in forming heterosexual relationships
2. Sexual perversions
3. Impotence.
What is psychodynamics?
The study of the unconscious mind, the unconscious mental drives that develop in childhood, the interaction and influence of these forces on behaviour, personality and mental states.
What is the fundamental belief of humanistic psychology?
That people are innately good and mental, emotional and social problems result from deviations from this natural tendency.
What are the 5 areas humanistic psychologists ultimately believe in?
- Rejection of scientific method- human mind is too complex for simple cause and effect explanations.
- Free will - external causes do not set our behaviour and we have free will to consciously make our own decisions.
- Holistic- criticises others for reductionist explanations, instead considers: genetics (bio), learned response (behaviourism), observed reward (SLT), cognitive priming (cognitive) and unconscious drives (Psychodynamic).
- Idiographic focus on non-experimental methods- case studies of individuals matches the goal of the humanistic approach to capture the richness and depth of the human experience.
- Focus on mental health- doesn’t focus on how the mind malfunctions, but how we can achieve personal growth and self actualisation.
Who made the hierarchy of needs?
Maslow 1943
What is the role of free will and Maslow’s theory?
Maslow believed that everyone had free will and rejected determinism as free will is needed to self actualise as we need to choose this for ourselves and not be determined by genes or the environment.
Maslow wasn’t concerned with what went wrong with people so what was he concerned with?
What went right, his hierarchy of needs emphasised personal growth and fulfilment and lead to later developments in psychology like the positivity movement and happiness.
How do you move up the hierarchy of needs?
Each level must be fulfilled before moving up and Maslow believed that the more basic the need, the more powerfully experienced.
What is the order of the hierarchy of needs?
- Physiological needs:
Basic necessities for human survival like water, food, warmth and rest. - Safety needs:
Including personal and financial security,health and wellbeing. - Love and belongingness needs:
Social needs including desire for intimate relationships, friends and social connections. - Esteem needs:
Self esteem and esteem from others. Includes feelings of prestige and accomplishment. - Self actualisation:
Achieving one’s full potential, including creative activities and with no expectation for reward.
Why might someone fluctuate between levels of hierarchy?
Due to life events such as divorce or the loss of a job.
