Approaches Flashcards
what are approaches?
ways of explaining behaviour through different viewpoints
who is wudnt?
-first person to call himself a psychologist
-moved psychology from philosophical to a science
-believed the mind could be studied through experiments
-studied the mind systematically (structuralism approach)
what is introspection?
how a person gains knowledge of their own mental state
what study did wudnt use and how was its scientific?
-observers shown a picture and asked how they percieve it
-used same stimulus each time
-used same instructions (so it could be replicated)
-p’s asked to decribe thought processes so it could be compared
explain one research study into introspection? gambler study
Study thought processes of gamblers and non- gamblers.
He thought gamblers thought processes would be more irrational.
-P’s asked to think aloud while playing fruit machine (told not to justify their thoughts)
Found gamblers had more irrational thoughts.
what are 4 evaluation points of wudnt’s methods?
-Uses self report techniques, we have little knowledge of causes and processes of our behaviour- reports may be inaccurate, thus invalid.
-P’s might lie due to social desirability bias- lowers internal validity.
-Wundts methods are inconsistent, not been reliably replicated by other researchers in other labs. Lacks reliability.
-Theory cannot be tested proven false- he studied unobservable mental processes.
what are the 7 key features of the scientific method?
1- should use empirical methods:
-Science is what we know to be true, not what we believe.
-Therefore, science relies on empirical methods (observation, direct testing).
Feature 2- Theory construction and hypothesis testing:
See something > create a theory > form a hypothesis from the theory > test > modify if there is no support. Repeat to strengthen.
Feature 3- theories must be falsifiable:
Scientists should form theories so they can be proved false.
Feature 4- must have objectivity and be controlled:
-Data should be empirical/ controlled to ensure objectivity, so the study isn’t affected by researchers expectations, therefore psychologists must stay objective.
Feature 5- must have replicability:
If the outcome is the same, it supports original results and can be generalised to other situations/ people. (The theory is valid.)
Feature 6- must have paradigms and paradigm shifts:
Paradigms are general ideas that are accepted by majority of scientists.
Paradigms change with new evidence, that causes questions over original paradigm (paradigm shift)
Some believe psychology is a science as it has undergone paradigm shifts
However, psychology lacks a universally accepted paradigm.
Feature 7- science must use peer review:
Assessment of scientific work by other experts in the same field, to ensure published work is high quality.
what are 4 evaluation points of psychology emerging as a science?
-: can human behaviour be tested scientifically.
-: we don’t live under controlled conditions (not ecologically valid to everyday life)
+: it is objective and uses controlled methods of testing. +: theories can be modified/ abandoned.
what did the behaviourist approach suggest?
-rejected vagueness of introspection and argued psychologists should focus on observable events that can be scientifically measured.
-Theory states learning occurs by classical/ operant conditioning.
what is classical conditioning?
learning via association
US > UR
US + NS > UR
CS > CR
what is the study into classical conditioning?
Pavlov’s dogs- dogs didn’t only salivate with food, they salivated in response to stimulus that was present at the same time. E.g., food bowl
what is operant conditioning?
learning by consequence
Positive reinforcement- rewarding a behaviour to increase likelihood of repeated positive behaviour.
Negative reinforcement- removal of unpleasant consequences.
what is the study of operant conditioning?
Skinner’s rats:
Rat presses lever accidentally when green light flashes = food
If they press it on red light = electric shock
Behaviour likely to be repeated for green light.
what are 4 evaluation points of the behaviourist approach?
+: operant conditioning has real life applications- prisons reward good behaviour with privileges.
+: lab experiments- increases scientific credibility of psychology as a science.
-: research carried out on animals, can’t be generalised to complex human behaviour.
-: reductionist theory- reduces human behaviour capabilities to only learning through reward and association.
what is the social learning theory?
much behaviour is learnt, though observational learning is still important, via imitation of role models behaviour.
-behaviour is learnt faster via imitation than conditioning.
when is behavior more likely to be imitated?
They have self efficacy (believe they have the ability to imitate behaviour)
-There are positive consequences for behaviour (it is rewarded)
-Seeing your role model being rewarded makes imitation more likely as you want to be rewarded. (Vicarious reinforcement).
what are the 4 mediational processes?
Attention- individuals need to perceive and attend to significant features of behaviour.
Retention- individuals must code info into LTM to produce modelled behaviour.
Motor reproduction- observer must be able to reproduce role models behaviour.
Motivation- observer expects to receive positive reinforcement for modelled behaviour so wants to copy.
explain bandura’s bobo doll study?
A: effects of children being exposed to aggressive and non- aggressive role models.
P: 36 boys, 36 girls (3-5 years old), 3 groups:
1= watched aggressive model hit bobo doll with hammer and punch it saying pow/boom.
2=saw non- aggressive model playing quietly in corner of room.
3= control group (had no model)
Children then left in room with bobo doll and observed fro 20mins through one way mirror.
F:Group 1 frequently imitated same acts of aggression, other 2 groups showed little aggression.
what are 4 evaluation points of SLT?
-: lab experiment- lacks ecological validity, results may not generalise to real life aggressive behaviour of children. Children may have also been responding to demand characteristics.
+: SLT provides a more comprehensive explanation of human learning by recognising cognitive processes, less deterministic than CC/OC.
-: can be seen as reductionist- too simplistic to argue behaviour is only learnt via imitation- biological factors (hormones) can influence social learning (bobo doll study- boys more aggressive than girls).
+: Real life application- can explain criminal behaviour, Ulrich 2003- strongest cause of violent behaviour in adult ps was when it was modelled and rewarded. SLT could be used as a campaign for reducing violence.
what is the cognitive approach?
how people perceive, store and interpret information. Cognitive psychologists argued we need to look at internal mental processes to understand behaviour.
what are the 3 areas of cognitive psychology?
-schema
-role of theoretical and computer models
-emergence of cognitive neuroscience
what is schema?
organise info in the brain. Knowledge built up from previous experiences, helps us take shortcuts when interpreting info. Helps us fill in gaps, when some info is absent.
-However schema can cause stereotyping.
-Schema makes us focus on info that confirms our pre- existing beliefs.
what is the role of theoretical and computer models?
Theoretical models- examples include working memory model and multi store model of memory. These are simplified representations of memory, often showed as a diagram. These can be changed/ refined.
Computer models- likens our memory to computers- info is inputted through the senses and encode to our memory to be retrieved when needed. Like RAM (random access memory) working memory is seen as temporary workspace and is cleared when a task is finished.
what is the emergence of cognitive neuroscience?
Neuroscientists now study the living brain through PET scans and fMRI scans to see active parts of brain.
Raine et.al (1997) investigated brain activity of 41 murderes via PET scans. Reduced glucose metabolism in prefrontal cortex in murderes brains, suggests reduced function in PFC (control of emotional impulses including aggression).
what are 4 evaluation points of the cognitive approach?
+: applied in many areas of psychology- helps social psychologists how dysfunctional behaviour can be traced to faulty thinking processes, leading to treatment like CBT.
+: Emphasis on scientific method- evidence collected objectively in controlled environments, to form accurate conclusions.
-: doesn’t generalise computer from humans- doesn’t consider differences between computer processes and human mind processes.
-: Reductionist- reduces all behaviour down to thought processes, doesn’t explain why different cognitive processes occur.
what is the psychodynamic approach?
unconscious minds can control our behaviour, and that behaviour is determined more by psychological factors than biological factors/ reinforcement.
what are the 4 parts of the psychodynamic approach?
-role of the unconcious
-structures of personality
-defence mechanisms
-psychosexual stages
what is the role of the unconcious?
Conscious-mental activity we are aware of (thoughts/ perceptions).
Preconscious- things we could be aware of if we tried (memories/ knowledge)
Unconscious- things we aren’t aware of and can’t become aware of (fears)
Freudian slips- the unconscious can sometimes reveal itself during dreams or slips of the tongue.
what is the defence mechanisms and what are 3 examples?
The ego defence mechanism may be triggered if you are faced with a situation you can’t resolve, operates unconsciously to distort reality so anxiety is reduced.Prevents unpleasant thoughts surrounding traumatic situations.
Examples:
Repression- unconscious blocking of unacceptable thoughts/ impulses.
Denial- refusing to acknowledge some aspects of reality.
Displacement- redirect thoughts to another target.
what are the psychosexual stages?
oral- birth-1- mouth is main focus of pleasure, can cause oral fixation
anal-1-3yrs- pleasure from witholding/expelling faeces- messy
phallic- 3-5yrs- posses mother, causes narcissistic personality
latency-6-12- directed to sports/hobbies, developing friends
genital- 12+- develop healthy adult relationships
what are 4 evaluation points of the psychodynamic approach?
+: lead to acceptance of abnormality- represented shift in psychological thinking, based on observation not introspection.
+: practical applications- proposed psychoanalysis (forerunner to modern day physiotherapies.
-: not falsifiable- not open to empirical testing, can’t test unconscious aspects.
-: non generalisable- based off limited number of people, not representative of population (low external validity)
what is the humanist approach?
emphasises individuals have free will. We can still be affected by external/ internal influences but we can determine our own development.
what is maslow’s heirachy of needs?
Argues everyone has innate tendency to achieve full potential (self actualisation- top of pyramid). Each level needs to be fulfilled before advance to the next level.
-self-actualisation
-self-esteem
-love and belonging
-safety and security
-physiological needs
what are the 2 conditions of self-worth?
1-feeling of self-worth:
Believe how we think about ourselves is important in determining psychological health. The closer together our self and ideal self our, the greater our feelings of self-worth. Congruence- similarity between self and ideal self. Incongruence- difference between self and ideal self.
2- positive regard from others:
Positive regard from others is important for self worth and congruence.
Unconditional positive regard- love and acceptance is unconditional.
Conditional positive regard- only accepted based off conditions. (Develop conditions of worth)
what was the theory’s influence on counselling psychology?
Rodger’s believed individuals psychological problems were result of conditions of worth. He believed, with counselling people could solve their own problems in constructive ways. Helps people understand how they can reach self-actualisation.
what are 4 evaluation points of the humanism approach?
+: Not reductionist- doesn’t break up behaviour and experience (considers whole person- valid)
+: promotes positive view of humans- positive approach to behaviour, optimistic views.
-: culturally biased- ideas such as individual freedom associated to individualistic cultures, collectivist cultures might not identify.
-: vague and abstract ideas difficult to test-hard to test in lab conditions, although q-sort was developed.
what is the biological approach?
Suggests biological structures/processes in the body I.e., genes, neurochemistry influence our behaviour.
how do genes influence behaviour?
Genes make up proteins, they cause physiological responses, as they carry instructions for a particular characteristic. Heredity is passing on characteristics to the next generation through genes.
what are genotypes/phenotypes and alleles
Genotype is the whole set of genetic info carried by an organism, whereas a phenotype is the physical expression of the genotype.
Different forms of genes are alleles (dominant or recessive).
You need 2 copies of the recessive allele for the recessive allele to show, however you only need 1 copy of the dominant allele for the dominant allele to show.
what is the influence of different parts of the brain on behaviour?
Cerebrum makes up 85% of the brains total mass (largest part), outer surface of the cerebrum is the cerebral cortex (responsible for thought and language). Cerebrum is divided into the left/right hemispheres, these are further divided into lobes:
Frontal lobe- functions such as speech, thought and learning.
Parietal lobe- process sensory info such as touch, temperature and pain.
Temporal lobe- hearing/ memory.
Occipital lobe- process visual info.
how does neurochemistry influence behaviour?
Neurotransmitters are chemicals in the brain, that releases and trigger nerve impulses, which stimulate the brain. E.g., serotonin is associated with behaviours like depression, anxiety and aggression.
what is evolution and what are 2 ways it occurs?
Evolution is the process by which an organism changes over time to adapt to their environment, leading to changes in genetic make up of animals over time.
Natural selection is one way evolution occurs. Individuals within a species differ based on physical characteristics/ behaviour. Individuals in a population compete fro resources, those who are successful survive and reproduce, passing these behaviours onto their offspring.
what evolution occurs. Traits should evolve because they are attractive to the opposite sex, increasing reproductive success, leading to survival of that gene.
what are 4 evaluation points of the biological approach?
+: theory is scientific- Explanations based on biological fact not opinion (objective), uses scientific methods like brain scanning to examine behaviour. It is falsifiable.
+: real life applications- Helps us understand vulnerabilities to illnesses, which can be tested for preventive treatments. Positive implications.
-: reductionist- Reduces complex human behaviour to simplistic biological processes, ignoring things such as behaviourist approach. More likely behaviour is determined by both genes and the environment. (Diathesis stress model)
-: deterministic- suggests behaviour is determined by internal biological forces with no free will. Socially insensitive
which of the approaches are reductionist?
all of the approaches except the humanist approach
which of the approaches are committed to psychology as a science?
behaviourist
social
biological
cognitive (partially)
