Approaches Flashcards
Who is Wilhelm Wundt? And what did he believe?
He is considered one of the founders of psychology.
He believed that all aspects of behaviour and the human mind could be studied scientifically.
He also created the first experimental psychology laboratory.
What is Wilhelm Wundt’s approach called?
Structuralism
This involves looking at the structure of our abilities and behaviours.
His approach is influenced by biologists, philosophers and medical experts.
What does introspection mean?
“Looking into”
What does the process of introspection involve?
Introspection involves the examination of one’s thoughts.
Introspection relies primarily on on non-observable responses and although participants can report conscious experiences, they are unable to comment on unconscious factors relating to their behaviour.
Introspection should be obtained DURING a task performance rather than after to avoid memory problems.
How did Wundt help instigate psychology as we know it?
- Use of standardised procedures and instructions
- Systematic observation and experimentation on human and animal behaviour
- Opening of the first experimental psychology laboratory
- Introduced use of “controlled conditions”
What is the scientific model?
- Theory
-> use a theory to form a hypothesis - Hypothesis
-> Design a study to support the hypothesis - Research
-> Perform the research - Observations
-> Create or modify the theory
This is placed in a continuous cycle
What are the 5 features of science? (FROGS)
Falsifiable - it should be possible to test a theory or the findings of a study to refute/ falsify them (prove them wrong)
Replicable - refers to the ability to repeat research and achieve the same findings as the original study
Objective - unbiased view
General Laws - the research/ theory should provide general laws about psychology that can be used as a paradigm
Systematic- as objective, well ordered methods for close examination of an aspect of behaviour to obtain reliable and unbiased data by observers
Evaluations of origins of psychology:
- Useful general laws (controlled lab experiments, standardised procedures, replicability)
- Highly subjective (can easily change, vulnerable to bias, Wundt used own students(demand characteristics), brains are too complex)
- Practical applications (opened first experimental lab and trained 186 graduate students)
- Lacks generalisability (small sample of upper class white men from 19th century)
- Lacks temporal validity
- Andocentric (all males)
- Ethnocentric
What is structuralism?
Defined as: attempting to understand what underpins a behaviour, rather than focusing on the behaviour itself.
What are the 2 processes Charles Darwin which our behaviour has been acquired through?
- Natural selection
- Survival of the Fittest
Define Evolution:
The gradual change within a species over several generations in response to environmental pressures.
Define Natural Selection:
The process where inherited characteristics that enhance survival (or fitness) are passed onto the next generation.
Define adaptive:
Refers to a behaviour or trait that will increase the chance of survival and boost reproductive success.
What is biological preparedness?
A predisposition to be sensitive to certain stimuli
What did Seligman suggest?
There was a biological preparedness to phobias of certain things.
We have an innate tendency to rapidly acquire a phobia to potentially harmful phenomena. This is why phobias such as heights/ spiders/ snakes are more common as it would be a threat to early man
Give an example of a highly adaptive behaviour.
Showing fear to a massive furry spider.
This would lead to higher survival rates as people know to avoid it.
All humans are genetically 99.9 the same. But why don’t we all look or act the same?
Due to having a unique genotype.
Define Genotype.
The genetic constitution of an individual. Each cell contains the same genotype.
(Variation in human genotype can account for enormous variation across species)
How genetically similar are we to chimpanzees
98% genetically similar
Define phenotype
The results of your genetic material interacting with your environment to establish a behaviour.
It is a set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment.
(What you look like)
Are Identical twins (monozygotic) genetically identical?
Yes they are identically the same.
Are non-identical twins (dizygotic) genetically identical?
No, they share 50% genetic similarity
Are non-identical twins (dizygotic) genetically identical?
No, they share 50% genetic similarity
What are the 4 parts of the biological approach?
- Evolution and behaviour
- Genes and behaviour
- Biological structures in the brain (Neuroanatomy)
- Neurochemistry and behaviour
Raine at al (1997) used PET scans to identify several areas of murders brains who pleaded not guilty.
Summarise findings of Raine
Raine identified several areas of murders brains as significantly different to matched controls by using PET scans.
- There was reduced activity in the prefrontal cortex, amygdala, and hippocampus
- Abnormal asymmetries as reduced activity in the left and greater activity of the right hemisphere
What are the Assumptions of Behaviourism?
- When we are born our minds are a blank slate
- Little differences between learning that takes place in animals and other animals (can generalise)
- Behaviour is result of a stimulus- response
- ALL behaviour is learnt from the environment through classical and/or operant conditioning
Is the learning approach nature or nurture?
Extreme NURTURE
this is due to learning approach focusing on that all behaviour is learnt and born with a blank slate
What are the 3 key ways the learning approach assumes we learn behaviour? (CIA)
Consequences
Imitation
Association
Research support for classical conditioning. (Association)
Pavlov’s Dog study.
Getting dogs to salivate in response to a bell
Describe the process of classical conditioning using pavlov’s dog study as an example.
Before conditioning:
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) = Unconditioned Response (UCR)
Food = Salvation
During conditioning:
Neutral Stimulus (NS) + Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) = Unconditioned Response (UCR)
Bell + Food = Salvation
After conditioning:
Conditioned stimulus (CS) = Conditioned Response (CR)
Bell = Salvation
Define Extinction in classical conditioning
If the conditioned stimulus is continually presented without the unconditioned stimulus then the conditioned response gradually dies out or extinguishes.
Define Spontaneous Recovery in classical conditioning
If a conditioned response is not reinforced, it becomes extinguished. But may after a period of rest the response may suddenly reappear.
Define Discrimination in classical conditioning
The conditioned response is only produced by presentation of the original stimulus, it does not extend to similar stimulus.
E.g No generalisation (only specific bell)
Define Generalisation in classical conditioning
Extension of the conditioned response from the original stimulus to similar stimuli.
E.g. Little Albert’s phobia of white rat generalised to all white fluffy things
Define One Trial Learning in classical conditioning
When conditioning occurs immediately after event occurs once.
E.g. phobias formed from traumatic events
Research support for operant conditioning in the learning approach
Skinners box.
What is a primary reinforcer?
Anything that fulfils a basic biological need
E.g food fulfils hunger
What is a secondary reinforcer?
Only becomes a reinforcer when associated with a primary reinforcer
E.g caregiver gives the food that fifties the hunger
What is continuous reinforcement?
Desired behaviour is reinforced every single time it occurs.
E.g. rats get a food pellet every time it presses lever in skinners box.
What is partial reinforcement?
Desired behaviour is reinforced only part or some of the time
What is a Fixed ratio schedule in terms of reinforcement?
Gets rewarded at every particular interval.
E.g. Rat gets a food pellet after 5 lever presses
What is variable ratio schedule in terms of reinforcement?
Random and no pattern for reinforcement.
E.g A rat gets a food pellet after a number of lever presses which changes all the time.
What is positive reinforcement?
Increases the frequency of a desired behaviour by giving a present consequence. Rewarding behaviour. Strengthens behaviour.
What are examples of positive reinforcement?
- workers getting paid bonuses for working hard
- the dogs get a treat for returning when called
- child gets dessert for eating their vegetables
- reward points are given for good work at schools
What is negative reinforcement?
Increasing the frequency of a desired behaviour by removing something unpleasant. Escaping from an unpleasant consequence.
Examples of negative reinforcement:
- car buzzer turns of when seat belt is put on
- torture stops when victim confesses
What is meant by punishment?
Decreasing the frequency of a desired behaviour by giving an unpleasant consequence.
Examples of punishment:
- commit crime -> go to prison
- skip school-> grounded by parents
What is the difference between positive punishment and negative punishment?
Positive punishment involves adding something
Negative punishment involves taking something away
What is Social learning theory (SLT) suggest
We indirectly learn through imitating role models
See, Think, Do
What is Imitation in SLT?
Refers to copying the behaviour we have observed in a role model, which may or may not have gained a reward.
(Mimicking and low level)
What is Identification in SLT?
Occurs when we see ourselves as being similar to a particular individual and wish to be like them, so we are influenced by their behaviour and more likely to imitate them.
(Behaviour and attitude, deeper level)
What is modelling in SLT?
Refers to copying the behaviour of an individual who is viewed as a role model.
What are the 3 types of modelling in SLT?
- Live model (what we see)
- Verbal model (what we hear)
- Symbolic models (film stars/characters)
What is vicarious reinforcement in SLT?
This occurs when an individual observes a role model being rewarded for a behaviour. They are then motivated to imitate this behaviour in the hope of receiving a similar rewarding consequences.
What is Vicarious punishment in SLT?
Occurs when the tendency to engage in a behaviour is weakened after having observed the negative consequences for another engaging in that behaviour.
Name the meditational processes in Social Learning Theory?
(ARRM)
Attention
Retention
Reproduction
Motivation
What is mean by Attention as one of the meditational processes in Social Learning Theory?
The observer has to concentrate on the model’s behaviour if it is to be intimidated. Identification with the role model is important here. Close attention needed.
What is mean by Retention as one of the meditational processes in Social Learning Theory?
The Behaviour has to be remembered and stored if it is going to be imitated later. Individuals will need a good enough memory to retain what you see.
What is mean by Reproduction as one of the meditational processes in Social Learning Theory?
The observer must be capable of imitating / reproducing the behaviour that they have observed. Physically being able to repeat the behaviour.
What is mean by Motivation as one of the meditational processes in Social Learning Theory?
The observer must have a good reason and want to imitate the behaviour that has been observed.
What is meant by Alpha bias?
A theory or research over-exaggerates sex differences. Creates stereotypes.
What is meant by beta bias?
A theory or research which minimises sex differences. This is more common in study’s. Over generalised.
