Approaches Flashcards
A01: define introspection
The first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations
A01: define structuralism (standardised procedures)
Isolating the structure of consciousness in this way is called structuralism. The stimuli that Wundt and his co-workers experienced were always presented in the same order and the same instructions were issued to all participants.
A03: SCIENTIFIC DATA (ORIGINS OF PSYCH)
One STRENGTH of Wundt’s work is that some of his methods were systematic and well-controlled (i.e. scientific).
All introspections were recorded in the controlled environment of the lab, ensuring that possible extraneous variables were not a factor. Procedures and instructions were carefully standardised so that all participants received the same information and were tested in the same way.
This suggests that Wundt’s research can be considered a forerunner to later scientific approaches in psychology, such as the behaviourist approach.
A03: SUBJECTIVE DATA (ORIGINS OF PSYCH)
One limitation is that other aspects of Wundt’s research would be considered unscientific today.
Wundt relied on participants self-reporting their mental processes. Such data is subjective (influenced by a personal perspective). Also participants may have hidden some of their thoughts. It is difficult to establish meaningful ‘laws of behaviour’ from such data. And general laws are useful to predict future behaviour, one of the aims of science.
This suggests that some of Wundt’s early efforts to study the mind were flawed and would not meet the criteria of scientific enquiry.
A01: define classical conditioning (BEHAVIOURIST)
Learning by association. Occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together - an unconditioned (unlearned) stimulus (UCS) and a new ‘neutral’ stimulus (NS). The neutral stimulus eventually produces the same response that was first produced by the unconditioned (unlearned) stimulus alone.
A01: describe Pavlov’s dog (classical conditioning)
Food is unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and the dog salivating is the unconditioned response (UCR)
The ringing bell is a neutral stimulus and the dog does not salivate (no conditioned response)
The ringing bell and food together causes the dog to salivate
When the bell is rung (conditioned stimulus) it causes the dog to salivate (conditioned response)
A01: define reinforcement
A consequence of behaviour that increases the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated. Can be positive or negative
A01: define positive and negative reinforcement
Positive reinforcement is receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed, for example, praise from a teacher for answering a question correctly in class.
Negative reinforcement occurs when an animal (or human) avoids something unpleasant.
The outcome is a positive experience. For example, when a student hands in an essay so as not to be told off, the avoidance of something unpleasant is the negative reinforcement.
Both increase the likelihood of behaviour being repeated
A01: define punishment
Punishment is an unpleasant consequence of behaviour, for example being shouted at by the teacher for talking during a lesson.
Decrease the likelihood of behaviour that behaviour will be repeated
A01: define operant conditioning
A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences. Possible consequences of behaviour include reinforcement (positive or negative) and punishment.
A01: Skinners box (operant conditioning)
Skinner conducted experiments with rats, and sometimes pigeons, in specially designed cages called Skinner boxes. Every time the rat activated a lever (or pecked a disc in the case of the pigeon) within the box it was rewarded with a food pellet. From then on the animal would continue to perform the behaviour.
Skinner also showed how rats and pigeons could be conditioned to perform the same behaviour to avoid an unpleasant stimulus, for example an electric shock.
A03: WELL-CONTROLLED RESEARCH (BEHAVIOURIST)
One STRENGTH of the behaviourist approach is that it is based on well-controlled research.
Behaviourists focused on the measurement of observable behaviour within highly controlled lab settings. By breaking down behaviour into basic stimulus-response units, all other possible extraneous variables were removed, allowing cause-and-effect relationships to be established. For instance, Skinner was able to clearly demonstrate how reinforcement influenced an animal’s behaviour.
This suggests that behaviourist experiments have scientific credibility.
A03: COUNTERPOINT- OVERSIMPLIFIED (BEHAVIOURIST)
However, the problem with this is that behaviourists may have oversimplified the learning process. By reducing behaviour to such simple components, behaviourists may have ignored an important influence on learning - that of human thought. Other approaches, such as social learning theory and the cognitive approach have drawn attention to the mental processes involved in learning.
This suggests that learning is more complex than observable behaviour alone, and that private mental processes are also essential.
A03: REAL WORLD APPLICATION (BEHAVIOURIST)
Another STRENGTH of the behaviourist approach is that the principles of conditioning have been applied to real-world behaviours and problems.
For example, operant conditioning is the basis of token economy systems that have been used successtully in institutions, such as prisons and psychiatric wards. These work by rewarding appropriate behaviour with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges. For an example of how classical conditioning has been applied to the treatment of phobias.
This increases the value of the behaviourist approach because it has widespread application
A03: ENVIRONMENTAL DETERMINISM (BEHAVIOURIST)
One LIMITATION of the behaviourist approach is that it sees all behaviour as conditioned by past conditioning experiences.
Skinner suggested that everything we do is the sum total of our reinforcement history. When something happens we may think one made the decision to do that but, according to Skinner, our past conditioning history determined the outcome. This ignores any possible influence that free will may have on behaviour (Skinner himself said that free will is an illusion).
This is an extreme position and ignores the influence of conscious decision-making processes on behaviour (as suggested by the cognitive approach).
A01: SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY APPROACH
A way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement, combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors. SLT proposed people learn through observation and imitation of others
A01: define vicarious reinforcement
Vicarious reinforcement occurs when learners observe role models receiving either positive or negative reinforcement. This means that because the learner has observed the consequences of the behaviour they are more (or less) likely to imitate it, depending on what those consequences were
A01: mediational process (SLT)
ARMM
Attention- the extent which we notice certain behaviour
Retention- how well the behaviour is remembered.
Motor reproduction - the ability of the observer to perform the behaviour.
Motivation -Individual seeks to demonstrate the behaviour that they have observed
A01: define identification (SLT)
When an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like the role model
A03: COGNITIVE FACTORS (SLT)
(P)One STRENGTH of the social learning theory approach is that is recognises the importance of cognitive factors in learning. (EE)Neither classical nor operant conditioning can offer an adequate account of learning on their own. Humans and animals store information about the behaviour of others and use this to make judgements about when it is appropriate to perform certain actions (L) This suggests that SLT provides a more comprehensive explanation of human learning by recognising, the role of mediational processes
A03: COUNTERPOINT- BIOLOGICAL INFLUENCES (SLT)
Despite this, SLT has been criticised for making too little reference to the influence of biological factors on social learning. Although Bandura claimed natural biological differences influenced our learning potential,he thought that learning itself was determined by the environment. However, recent research suggests that observational learning, of the kind Bandura was talking about,may be the result of mirror neurons in the brain,which allow us to empathise with and imitate other people.
This suggests that the biological influences on social learning were under-emphasised in SLT
A03: CONTRIVED LAB STUDIES (SLT)
One LIMITATION of social learning theory is that the evidence on which it is based was gathered through lab studies. Many of Bandura’s ideas were developed through observation of young children’s behaviour in the lab. Lab studies are often criticised for their contrived nature where participants may respond to demand characteristics. It has been suggested, in relation to the Bobo doll research that, because the main purpose of the doll is to strike it, the children were simply behind in a way that they thought was expected. This suggest that the research may tell us little about how children actually learn aggression in everyday life..
A03: REAL-WORLD APPLICATION (SLT)
Another STRENGTH is that SLT principles have been applied to a range of real- world behaviours. Social learning theory has the advantage of being able to explain cultural differences in behaviour. SLT principles, such as modelling, limitation and reinforcement, can account for how children learn from others around them, including the media and this can explain how cultural norms are transmitted through particular societies. This has proved useful in understanding a range of behaviours, such as how children come to understand their gender role.
This increases the value of the approach as it can account for real-world behaviour.
A01:COGNITIVE APPROACH
This approach is focused on how our mental processes (e.g. thoughts, perceptions, attention) affect behaviour.
The cognitive approach argues that internal mental processes can, and should, be studied scientifically.
