Approaches Flashcards
who is Wilhelm Wundt?
- “the father of psychology” 1879 Germany
- Set up worlds first lab for experimental psychology
- separated psychology from philosophy analysed workings of the mind in a more structured way, emphasis being on objective measures +control
Who is Sigmund Freud?
1900, established the psychodynamic approach + influence of unconscious mind on behaviour. developed own therapy for depression “psychoanalysis”
who is John Watson + Skinner
1913, behaviourist approach, criticised Freud + Wundt as should restrict itself to studying phenomena that can be observed + measured, introspection =subjective. believe all behaviour is learnt(through experiences + environment), observable behavioural
Who is Carl Rogers + Abraham Maslow?
1950, humanistic approach. rejected behaviourism + psychodynamic approach, behaviour was not determined by individuals. Humanists =free will +self determination
what happened in 1960?
Cognitive approach, intro of computers, studying mental processes more scientific way than Wundts introspection. how mind works, basis of lab exp
what happened in 1980?
Biological approach( dominant scientific approach in psychology) advances in technology(MRI scans)=increased understanding of brain+biological
who is Bandura
1960,social learning theory, provides bridge between behaviourism + cognitive psychology
what happened in 2000s?
cognitive neuroscience, distinct discipline bringing together cognitive +biological approaches(influence mental state?)
What is Introspection?
“looking into”, examination into human mind using objective methods +examine conscious thoughts
how does introspection work?
Subjects would be presented with stimulus/activity e.g. sound/image/ problem to solve. asked to report back how it made them think or feel
evaluation of introspection?
+breakthrough, established as a science, exp highly controlled in lab, gave credibility
-not accurate, pps unaware of factors that influence their choices
What is standardisation
When situational variables are controlled
Strength of wundts method
+ replicable = wrote down method of his study
Weaknesses of wundts study
- less scientific = not directly observing anything, no empirical evidence
- lacks reliability = study replicated + results weren’t consistent
Who was the psychodynamic approach developed by
Sigmund Freud
What is the iceberg model
A = conscious mind -> everything you are currently thinking about
B = pre conscious mind -> everything you are not currently thinking about
C = unconscious mind -> what we can never access when awake
(A + B easily accessible)
Key assumption of psychodynamic approach
Most of our behaviour is caused by unconscious mind
What 3 parts is our personality made up of
Tripartite structure
1. ID
2. SUPER EGO
3. EGO
What is the ID
- unconscious
- impulses + urges
- wants instant gratification
- responsible for most of our behaviour
What is the SUPER EGO
- unconscious, Preconscious + conscious
- morals + following rules
What is the EGO
- conscious + pre conscious
- mediates + compromises between ID + SUPER EGO
Which personality is the most powerful and why
Unconscious = less powerful than conscious
ID powerful > EGO
What is a defence mechanism
- used by ego to help balance between super ego + id
- unconscious
- ensure ego is able to prevent us from being overwhelmed by traumas
Name the 3 defence mechanisms
- Displacement
- Repression
- Denial
What is displacement
Redirects ID’s impulses towards towards something else (neutral person/ object
What is repression
Pushing away/down unpleasant memories into unconscious mind
What is denial
Ego gives into id, refusing to believe it has
What is are the 5 psychosexual stages
- Oral stage
- Anal stage
- Phallic stage
- Latent stage
- Genital stage
Describe the first psychosexual stage
ORAL :
* birth - 18 months
* mouth = focus of pleasure + instant gratification
* impulse to eat
What is oral fixation
- overly dependant
- habits = smoking, biting nails
Described the 2nd psychosexual stage
ANAL STAGE:
* 18months - 3yrs
* anus = main focus of pleasure + urge for instant gratification
* Impulse is to poo
What are the fixations of the anal stage
Anal retentive = nervous about using toilet during potty training
-neatness, perfection, organised
Anal explosive = keen to go toilet during potty training
- messy,
Describe the 3rd psychosexual stage
PHALLIC STAGE
* 3-6yrs
* Oedipus complex
* electra complex
* fixation = over ambition, narcism, jealousy, anxious, impulsivity
What is the Oedipus complex
= boys become sexually attracted/ close to mother + jealous of father
- fear of castration = castration anxiety
What is the electra complex
= girls become sexually attracted to father + experience penis envy
- fear losing mothers love
Describe the 4th psychosexual stage
LATENT
* 6-12 yrs
* earlier conflicts become repressed
Describe the last psychosexual stage
GENITAL
* 12 yrs
* genitals= focus of pleasure
* sexual desires become conscious with onset puberty
Final fixation
-> all stages successfully completed = sexually matured + mentally healthy
-> if not, difficulty forming heterosexual relationships
What is a psychological fixation
When repressed psychological trauma affects behaviour
Little Hans - case study method + findings
- Dad observed, wrote down behaviour + description of dreams
- Hans curious about own penis, Freud believed he was in phallic stage
- Hans sexually attracted to mum + jealous of father
- Redirected unconscious fear of father through displacement
Little Hans - Evaluation
+ little Hans fit Freuds model of psychosexual stages
- case study -> results not generalisable to other ppl
- self report -> not based on any objective, empirical evidence
- non experimental method -> doesn’t test cause and effect
Strengths of psychodynamic approach
+ Freud was 1 of first psychologists to investigate psychological causes for psychological disorders
+ strikes balance between idiographic + nomothetic
-> idiographic = case studies focus on individual experiences
-> nomothetic = proposes general theories about behaviour (tripartite personality)
What is psychic determinism
When repressed trauma in the unconscious mind determines our behaviour
Weaknesses of psychodynamic approach
- psychic determinism
- gender.bias -> freuds concept of penis envy assumes girls want same things boys want
- isn’t scientific -> not based on empirical evidence = aren’t falsifiable
-> research relies on case studies = lack population validity+ generalisability
Who was the behaviourist approach developed by
John Watson
Assumptions of behaviourist approach
- most behaviours learned through experience as we interact with our environment
- psychologists should study observable behaviour only -> based on empirical evidence
- use animal research to reach conclusions about human behaviour, believe we use same learning mechanisms
What are the 2 learning mechanisms
- Classical conditioning
- Operant conditioning
What is classical conditioning
Something neutral becomes associated with something that already makes you feel a certain way
Explain the stages of classical conditioning
Before -> neutral stimulus = causes no response + unconditioned stimulus causes unconditioned response
During -> neutral stimulus becomes associated with unconditioned stimulus (NS + UCS)
After -> neutral stimulus becomes conditioned stimulus causing conditioned response
What is a neutral stimulus
When a stimulus doesn’t make you feel/ respond in a certain way
What is an unconditioned stimulus and response
When a stimulus does make you feel/ respond a certain way
The response we get from an UCS
Who did study support for classical conditioning
Ivan Pavlov 1903
Ivan Pavlov 1903: outline study
Before -> neutral stimulus = bell Unconditioned stimulus = food Unconditioned response = saliva
During -> dogs formed association between bell + food as NS became associated with UCS
After -> conditioned stimulus = bell Unconditioned response = salivation
What is operant conditioning
Learn to associate actions with an outcome
What is positive reinforcement
More likely to repeat behaviour, actions are reinforced by receiving a reward
What is negative reinforcement
More likely to repeat a behaviour, actions are reinforced as smth negative being taken away
What is punishment
When a negative outcome makes you less likely to repeat a behaviour
Who did study support for operant conditioning
BF Skinner
BF Skinner method
- lab experiment on rats
- 1 rat at a time placed in glass box containing different stimuli = lever releasing for + electroplated floor
BF Skinner found
- rats learned to associate pressing lever with getting food (reward) -> POSITIVE reinforcement
- rats learned to avoid electric shock by pressing lever when light came on, making pain stop (avoiding punishment-> NEGATIVE reinforcement
Strengths of behaviourist approach
+ learning mechanisms can be used to develop psychological treatment
* classical conditioning= treat anxiety+ phobias by replacing negative associations with positive association
+ very scientific ->Skinners study = lab experiment, researchers can apply scientific method to research
* high internal validity, high control over extraneous variables
* high reliability, highly standardised
Weaknesses of behaviourist approach
- overly reductionist, only focus on nurture side of nature - nurture debate
- born with certain behaviours, inherited from parents
- high reliability, highly standardised
Animal studies :
- lack generalisability
- unethical (cause harm + distress)
What is environmental determinism
Our behaviour is determined by stimuli and outcomes in our environment.
Behaviourist approach assumes we don’t have…
Free will as behaviour is determined by environmental factors
Assumptions of cognitive approach
-Psychology must study mental processes as behaviour can’t just be explained by stimulus and response
-Mind works like a computer ( stimuli from environment = inputs) mind processes inputs then (behaviour = output)
What are the internal mental processes
- Perception -> how mind senses stimuli
- Attention -> how mind selects which stimuli to focus on
- Memory -> how mind stores info
Information processing model
Input (stimuli) -> processing -> output (behaviour)
mental processes have…
Limited capacity + occur in sequence but sometimes occur in parallel
Schemas
A mental framework which we form our experiences
* affect expectations + behaviour
* different ppl have different schemas
What is assimilation
When new experience matches our schema, is incorporated/ assimilated into our schema
What is accommodation
When an experience doesn’t match our schema, must accommodate our schema
Study support for cognitive approach
Bartlett 1932
Bartlett 1932 method
- male Cambridge uni students
- told them Native American folk tail = “war of ghosts”
- asked them to recall folk tail to measure how many details they got wrong
Bartlett 1932 findings
Pps changed details to match own cultural schema as it was unfamiliar to Western 1930s perspective
Canoes -> boats or left out unfamiliar names + places
Weaknesses of cognitive approach
- lab experiment, lack ecological validity
- ignores possibility that different pps mental processes work in different ways - ignores individual differences
Strength of cognitive approach
+ highly scientific = falsifiable, inferences based on observable behaviour, rely on empirical evidence, lab experiments = high control over extraneous variables
+ can be applied to understand + treat mental disorders (cognitive behavioural therapy)
What is cognitive neuroscience
= Study of which parts of brain are involved in different mental processes
Emergence of cognitive neuroscience
Only possible when ppl invented technology to look inside the brain while ppl were alive
Methods used by cognitive neuroscience to detect activity in brain
- fMRI = going into machine, gives pic of brain + which areas are active
- EEG = wearing a hat, measures activity in brain
Who came up with the humanistic approach
Abraham Maslow
Assumptions of humanistic approach
- humans have free will
- each individual is unique, can never generalise results of experiment = no external validity
- scientific method should not be used to explain behaviour
- humans should be viewed holistically + not reduced to parts
What is free will
Idea that humans aren’t controlled/ predetermined by internal biological forces or external factors
Have a choice to actions and behaviours
Humans are self determining agents that make own choices
Maslows hierarchy of needs
- Self actualisation = fulfilling human potential -> everyone’s unique so self actualisation in own way
- Esteem needs = independence achievement, positive self evaluation
- Love + belonging = friendship, giving + receiving affection
- Safety needs = security, stability, freedom, protection
- Physiological needs = food, warmth, water, air
Who is Carl rogers
Humanistic psychologist, used counselling to help patients reach full potential + be happy
Define ideal self, concept of self and congruence
Concept of self = what you think of yourself
Ideal self = what you would like to be
Congruence = ideal self matches self concept
What happens if a persons self is not congruent and how could this be improved
- experience psychological issues ( sadness, anxiety, insecurity)
- benefit from humanistic counselling
What are conditions of worth
What we think we need to change about ourselves to have self worth -> removing it helps patients achieve congruence
What is the main feature of humanistic counselling
= unconditional positive regard as it removes clients conditions of worth allowing them to achieve congruence
Strengths of humanistic approach
- Free will -> matches our subjective experiences of life
- Roger Therapy = client centred therapy emphasises clients free will + subjective experiences
+ applied to develop treatments for mental disorders
+ ideas from humanistic approach also used in cognitive behavioural therapy today
Weaknesses of humanistic approach
- can’t study self actualisation scientifically, based on abstract concepts eg congruence + self actualisation
- can’t be operationalised
- can’t be used to make predictions about behaviour
- can’t be tested for cause and effect relationship
- ignores biological explanations -> too holistic, can’t incorporate reductionist accounts of psychological disorders
Biological approach assumptions
- biological factors are main cause of behaviour
Body is made up of … each containing …
Cells = 23 pairs of chromosomes in each cell
DNA is
= A chain of 2 or more nucleotides joined together
- each cell has exactly the same DNA
DNA is divided into segments called… which control
Genes = control production of 1 specific protein
What are Alleles
Different versions of a particular gene, explains why ppl look different
What is genetic variation
= when a gene has different possible alleles
Sex cells
Woman = eggs
Men = sperms
- contain 23 chromosomes until reproduction when egg and sperm meet making 46 in total
What is genetic inheritance
When traits are passed down from parent to child
What is a genotype
= Description of all genes + alleles in body -> inherited from parents
What is a phenotype
= Persons traits (physical + physiological)
- controlled by both genotype and environmental factors
What do genes do
Control production of proteins = keep us alive + control our physical characteristics
Determine behaviour by affecting processes inside brain
What has the bigger impact on behaviour
Environmental factors than physical traits
Monozygotic twins
- identical twins
- share 100% of DNA
- come from 1 zygote which splits into 2 identical zygotes
Dizygotic twins
- non identical twins
- share 50% of genotype
- come from 2 different zygotes
What is the difference between shared and non shared environment
Shared = environment that a pair of twins have in common
Non shared = environment that a pair of twins don’t share in commmon
What is concordance
When 2 twins share the same phenotype
What is concordance rate
= % of twins who share a characteristic given that at least one twin has the characteristic
MZ + DZ twins have similar amounts of
Shared environment
Twin studies
Don’t include sets of twins where neither twin has the trait we’re studying
When does genetic variation contribute to a trait
- If concordance rate for monozygotic twins is > concordance rate for dizygotic twins
- Bigger the difference in concordance rate, the more influence genetic variation has on the trait
McGuffin (1996) method
Recruited bunch of MZ + DZ twins for which at least 1 twin has depression
McGuffin (1996): found
- if 1 MZ twin has major depression, 46% chance other twin had depression too
Concordance rate = 46% - if 1 DZ twin had major depression, 20% chance other twin had depression too
Concordance rate = 20%
McGuffin (1996): conclusion
~ genetic variation contributes to depression as concordance rate for MZ twins was bigger that for DZ twins
~ environmental factors still play a role in depression as concordance rate was not 100%
-> major depression is partially influenced by genetics
McGuffin (1996): limitations
- MZ twins might share more of their environment than DZ twins as they tend to be treated more similarly = bigger concordance rate in MZ twins might be partly caused by more similar environment
What is evolution
= When species gradually changes over many generations
What is natural selection
= When traits which increase chance for survival are passed onto future generations + species gradually adapt to their environment
* species genotype is determined by natural selection
What happens after DNA mutates
Creates a new/different version of the gene, new gene allele is created can happen during reproduction
-> when it happens over many generations, more likely to survive + reproduce passing on allele to future generations
How do natural selection/evolution shape our behaviour
-> causes have certain genes that control processes in Brain
-> processes in brain causes behaviour
What is biological determinism
Behaviour is determined by biological factors, such as our genetics
Limitations of biological approach
- overly reductionist = ignores social + cultural causes of behaviour
- biologically deterministic = don’t have ability to change/improve
-> Not held accountable for behaviour / can be excused/ can be discriminated
Strengths of biological approach
+ help understand + treat mental disorders/genetically inherited conditions
+ very scientific = gather objective + empirical data
-> control extraneous variables
-> can test cause + effect relationship
-> standardised procedure = easily replicated
Who came up with the social learning theory
Bandura
Assumption of slt
Learn by observing others + imitating behaviour
Imitation
When someone copies someone else’s behaviour
Modelling
Someone performs a behaviour which is imitated
Factors affecting observational learning :
- Identification = ppl more likely to imitate a model if they feel similar to them
- Vicarious reinforcement
Vicarious reinforcement
When someone imitates model because the observe model’s behaviour being rewarded
Vicarious punishment
Someone observes models behaviour being punished so less likely to imitate behaviour
Meditational processes
Mental processes that determine whether or not we imitate models behaviour
- attention
- retention
- reproduction
- motivation
Outline banduras bobo doll study
- lab study
- 3-6 yr olds
- 72 pps even girl and boys
- Stanford uni
Aim, iv and method of bobo doll study
Aim = whether children imitate adults who modelled aggressive behaviour
IV = level of aggression the adults modelled
1. Adults behaved aggressively towards bobo doll using pre determined standardised behaviours
2. Adult behaved non aggressive way
3. Control group - no adult/ model present
Findings of bobo doll study
- children more likely to act aggressively if observe adult modelling aggressive behaviour
- boys more likely imitate behaviour if they observed model of same gender ( identify with them)
What did Banduras second experiment test
Tested how vicarious reinforcement affects behaviour
Banduras second experiment findings
Children more likely to imitate models aggressive behaviour if model received reward of sweets than if model received punishment
Bandura strengths
+ reliable -> repeated diff versions of study multiple times + found similar results
+ High degree of control -> extraneous variables( toys, amount of time spent in rooms) controlled, high validity
Bandura weaknesses
- Ethical issues-> lack of informed consent from pps + psychological distress for childeren (observing aggressive behaviour
- lack of ecological validity ( may not generalise to real life)
SLT strengths
+ holistic model of learning than behaviourist approach -> accounts for role in Mediational processes in learning
+ real world applications of identification
SLT weaknesses
Bandura
- ethical issues
- lack ecological validity -> can’t generalise to rl
- lack internal validity = EV not controlled -> matched pairs design, can’t match for every possible pps variable so some may not be controlled
- can’t use scientific methods to study Mediational processes -> aren’t directly observable, cannot make reliable predictions about observational learning
what is a paradigm
set of shared assumptions + methods, approaches to psych are each a different paradigm. in order for a discipline to be a science, it must agree upon a paradigm
what is a paradigm shift
change in set of assumptions a science follows, advancing science forward
give an example of a paradigm shift
cognitive revolution (behaviourism to cognitive approach)
