Approaches Flashcards
Who was Wundt?
Founding father of psychology - opened the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany in 1879
What was introspection + its problems?
psychological method devised by Wundt to analyse people’s thoughts + feelings. Stimuli was presented - ppts would comment on how it made them feel. Main problem that it was highly subjective, people will articulate their feelings differently
How do we decide if an experiment/theory is scientific?
what THE FORK
Theory Construction
Hypothesis Testing
Empirical Method
Falsifiability
Objectivity
Replicability
Kuhn (paradigm shifts)
Outline the behaviourist approach?
Assumptions are:
Humans are born ‘tabula rasa’ (as a blank slate)
* Human behaviour is learnt through experience (classical and operant conditioning)
* Only observable behaviour can be studied scientifically.
* It is valid to study animals as they share the same principles of learning and
therefore conclusions can be extrapolated to humans.
outline the learning theory of attachment
This process of learning can be applied to human development.
Comfort for the baby is an UCS that produces happiness, the UCR. The babies mother will talk to it while she feeds it and changes its nappies etc. and thus the baby hears its mothers voice every time it is made happy. The sound of the mothers voice is matched with the UCS and therefore becomes a CS, eventually the sound of the mothers voice alone will make the baby happy. The CS now causes the CR.
Aims of Pavlov’s study?
To investigate stimulus-response associations in dogs
Method of Pavlov’s study?
Lab experiment
Pavlov paired the presentation of food, (which naturally produced a saliva response - reflex) with a
number of different neutral stimuli (e.g. a bell) (UCS + NS = UCS). Pavlov repeated this pairing
several times.
Eventually, Pavlov presented the neutral stimulus in isolation of the UCS.
He inserted a small test tube into the cheek of each dog to measure salivation.
Results of Pavlov’s study?
After a number of pairings, the dogs would salivate when they heard the bell ringing (without the
presentation of food)
The dog had learned an association between the bell and the food and a new behaviour had been
learnt.
Food UCS = Salivation UCR
Bell NS = No response
Food UCS + Bell NS = Salivation UCR
conclusions of Pavlov’s study?
Behaviours could be learnt through making stimulus-response associations
Aims of Skinner’s study?
To investigate operant conditioning in rats and pigeons.
Methods of Skinner’s study?
Lab experiment. Skinner placed animals in a ‘skinner box’.
1. (positive reinforcement) The box contained a
lever on the side, and as the rat moved about
the box it would accidentally knock the lever.
Immediately after a food pellet would drop into
a container next to the lever. Skinner also tested
to see what would happen if the food pellet
stopped being released.
2. (negative reinforcement) the rat was placed in
a box and then subjected to an unpleasant electric current. As the rat moved
about the box is would accidentally knock the lever. Immediately after it did so the
electric current would be switched off.
Findings of Skinner’s study?
- The rat continued pressing the lever as it received a positive consequence and the
behaviour has been reinforced. When the food pellet stopped being released then
the rat stopped the behaviour as the reinforcer had been removed (extinction). - The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in
the box. The consequence of escaping the electric current ensured that they
would repeat the action of pressing the lever.
Conclusions of Skinner’s study?
Behaviours are more likely to be repeated if they are reinforced and less likely
to be repeated if punished. Therefore, behaviour is learnt through the consequences of
actions.
Positive evaluation of Behaviourism?
Research - Scientific, emperical research methods used - Skinner + Pavlov use replicable lab exps - adds internal validity
Application - has played a large role in the formation of behavioural therapies, in particular the treatment of phobias eg systematic desensitisation
Negative evaluation for Behaviourism?
Research - use of animal studies in research is invalid, it could be argued; animals do not share the higher cognitive processes that humans do, could be said that behaviourism overlooks cognition
issues/debates - hard determinist (environmental) claims all behaviour is a result of the environment, Skinner says that free will is an illusion. Socially sensitive, and also potentially inaccurate - eg not everyone bitten by a dog develops a phobia of dogs.
Outline the Social Learning Theory?
Social learning theory proposes that behaviour is learned from
the environment through observing role models. In society,
children are surrounded by many influential models, such as
parents within the family, characters on children’s TV, friends
within their peer group and teachers at school. These models provide examples of
behavior to observe and imitate, e.g., masculine and feminine, pro and anti-social, etc.
Children pay attention to some of these people (models) and encode their behavior. This
is more likely if the child perceives the model as similar to itself (identifies) e.g. same
gender.
At a later time they may imitate (i.e., copy) the behavior they have observed. If a child
imitates a model’s behavior and the consequences are rewarding (direct
reinforcement), the child is likely to continue performing the behavior.
What are the cognitive mediational processes (ARMM)?
Attention - Learning can only take place if a model is attended to. More attention is
paid to role models who have status and those that we can identify with e.g individuals of
the same Gender.
Retention - Learning will only take place if the Behaviour we have observed is stored in
memory.
Motor reproduction - This relates to the performance of the behaviour. The
observer must be physically able to perform the behaviour for imitation to occur. For
example a child may want to imitate the skills of a footballer but lack the necessary ability
required to reproduce the behaviour.
Motivational processes - For a behaviour to be imitated, an individual needs the
right motivation to do it. If an individual observed a model being positively reinforced for
a behaviour (vicarious reinforcement), the behaviour would more likely to be imitated as
the consequence of imitation suggest we will be directly reinforced ourselves.
Then in future when an appropriate opportunity arises, the individual will weigh up the
chances of being directly reinforced. The individual might display the observed behaviour
provided that the expectation of positive consequences is greater than the expectation
of negative consequences.
Aims of Bandura’s study?
To find out if children would show more aggressive
behaviour if exposed to an aggressive role model and less
aggressive behaviour if exposed to a non-aggressive role
model.
Methods of Bandura’s study?
72 Children were split into three groups of 24 (12 boys, 12 girls)
Condition one (Aggressive)
Children observed a video of an adult (role model) attack a five foot
inflatable doll. The doll was kicked and punched and the attacker used
aggressive statements such as “Punch him on the nose”. Bandura used
males and females as role models.
Condition two (Non Aggressive)
Children observed an adult assembling a toy showing no aggression
Condition three (Control)
No adult model was observed
After this first stage each child was taken to a second room filled with toys and a bobo
doll. The child was filmed playing with the toys for twenty minutes
Bandura observed the children and recorded imitative aggression, partial imitation and
non-imitative aggression.
FIndings of Bandura’s study?
The children who had observed the aggressive model (condition one) displayed
higher levels of aggressive behaviour to the doll than those in either of the other two
conditions. Children were more likely to directly imitate same sex role models. Boys were
also more physically aggressive in all conditions.
Conclusions of Bandura’s study?
Bandura concluded that behaviour can be learned by observation and
imitation. Individuals are more likely to imitate role models that they identify with e.g those
of the same gender.
In later follow up version of the study – children were even more likely to imitate adults
who they had seen be rewarded for being aggressively. Which demonstrates the
importance of vicarious reinforcement.
positive evaluation for Bandura?
Experimental methods and Internal validity
Banduras research study was a laboratory experiment and therefore allowed for the
precise control of variables such as the role model used and the time the children
observed the behaviour. This allows for cause and effect to be established enhancing the
validity of the findings and the validity of the Social learning theory. The experiment also
used standardised procedures and instructions that allowed for it to be replicability. The
research has been replicated with slight changes such as the use of a video instead of
live role models and similar results were found enhancing its reliability.
negative evaluation for Bandura?
Artificial settings and Ecological Validity
A limitation of using laboratory studies such as Banduras on imitation is that it has low
ecological validity. The situation involved a child and an unfamiliar adult role model in an
artificial setting with no interaction between adult and child. This is a limited social
situation which is unlike real life modelling that takes place in a family or school context.
Also the imitation was measured almost immediately making this a snap shot study which
cannot tell us about the long term effects of the single exposure to the behaviour. This
therefore challenges the ecologically validity of Bandura’s findings as support for social
learning theory and the theory’s ability to explain learnt behaviour over time.
Positive evaluation for SLT?
Research - Bandura’s study provides backup to the claims made by SLT - lab exp adds int. validity
Issues/debates - SLT is comprehensive (not reductionist) when compared with something like behaviourism bc it addresses the role of cognitive mediational processes. explains individual differences in behaviour eg why not everyone who gets bitten by a dog has a phobia
Application - reducing stereotypes - can explain the development of gender-typical behaviour through the observation of same-sex role models in pop culture - SLT can help create legislation to combat these stereotypes
Negative evaluation for SLT?
Underestimates/ignores biological factors - emphasis on nurture (social factors) rather than nature (bio factors) makes the SLT’s ability to fully explain human behaviour dubious
Outline the cognitive approach?
Assumptions
* Behaviour can be largely explained through internal mental
processes such as thought
* Conscious Thought can influence behaviour
* Mediational processes occur between stimulus and response.
* The information processing approach suggests the mind works
in a way similar to a computer: inputting, storing and retrieving
data.
* Mental processes can be scientifically studied using laboratory
experiments
what is the role of inference in the cognitive approach?
To understand behaviour Cognitive Psychology focus on how people perceive, store,
manipulate and interpret information and research processes like perception, memory,
thinking and problem solving.
However these mental processes cannot be studied directly as they cannot be observed
(they are happening internally). Therefore they must be studied indirectly by inferring
what goes on as a result of directly observed behaviour. Inference leads to Psychologists
developing theories and models about mental processes.
For example Gathercole and Baddeley rely on inference from dual
task experiments (e.g. describing angles of letter F while
simultaneously following a light or doing a verbal task) to suggest that
the working memory has independent slave systems, and that whilst
limited in capacity can process information simultaneously if the
nature of those tasks are different (visual and verbal).
what is the role of theoretical models in the cognitive approach + example?
Scientific models aim to provide simplified, objective representations and descriptions of
how our mental processes might work.
Key Term Definition
Inference Going beyond the immediate evidence to make assumptions about
mental processes that cannot be directly observed.
Schema A schema is a mental structure which contains knowledge based on
experience. A schema organises information and acts as a guide to
behaviour.
Theoretical
models
A simplified, objective and descriptive representations of how our minds
might work.
Information
processing
(computer)
model
The mind is compared to a computer suggesting there are similarities in
the way information is processed and stored.
Cognitive
Neuroscience
The Scientific study of brain structures, mechanisms and chemistry that
are responsible for cognitive processes
Theoretical models are descriptive versions of how some
aspect of the human mind and behaviour works, which
may be represented visually. One important theoretical
model is the information processing
approach which suggests information
flows through the cognitive system in a
sequence of stages including input,
storage and retrieval. The Multistore
model is an example of this.
What is a schema?
a mental structure which contains knowledge based on
experience. A schema organises information and acts as a guide to
behaviour. Think of schemas like folders or files in your brain. We have
many different schemas e.g. event schema, self-schema, person
schema, social schema etc
How may schemas be useful/not useful?
Schemas are helpful
- Schemas save time because they
help you to make shortcuts when
you organise and interpret new or
large amounts of information rapidly. - Schemas therefore also prevent us
from becoming overwhelmed by
environmental stimuli.
Schemas are not always helpful
- The shortcuts we take can be
wrong. It could lead to prejudice
based on stereotypes. - We tend to pay more attention to
information that fits our held
schemas – which can mean we
ignore contradictory information.
Meaning our views are not
challenged. (attentional biases) - We may misremember something
because it didn’t fit into our held
schemas or we didn’t pay enough
attention to it in the first place.
What is cognitive neuroscience?
Cognitive Neuroscience is the scientific study of the influence of brain
structure, function and chemistry on Cognitive mental processes such
as thinking.
It uses scanning techniques to locate the Biological basis to cognitive
processes in the brain. The use of techniques such as Positron
emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance
imaging (fMRI) help psychologists to understand how the brain supports different cognitive
activity. In the last twenty years, the rapid advances in technology and in ways of
studying the brain have meant that neuroscientists are now able to study the living brain
and localise areas of the brain associated with specific Cognition. For example Paul
Broca identified how damage to a specific area of the brain (frontal lobe) permanently
impaired speech production.
Positive evaluation for cognitive approach?
Research - approach is scientific. cog psychologists emphasise scientific methods, eg testing of various components of the MSM. cognitive neuroscience takes this further - int validity
application - has contributed to the development of psychological treatments. CBT is used to treat depression, and targets negative self-schemas with logical thinking.
Negative evaluation for cognitive approach?
Research - research often lacks external validity. Exps like memorisation of word lists or similar lack mundane realism and as a result do not have external validity
issues/debates - machine reductionism. cog treats the mind like a computer, which perhaps ignores more intricate and abnormal behaviours (or emotional motiviations) that humans demonstrate, so fails to adequately explain behaviour
Ouline the biological approach?
Assumptions
* Behaviour can be largely explained in terms of Biology (e.g. genes/hormones/
neurochemistry).
* Human genes have evolved over millions of years to adapt behaviour to the
environment. Therefore, most behaviour will have an adaptive / evolutionary
purpose.
* Behaviour and processes can be explained by the structure and function of the
human nervous system, particularly the brain.
* Psychology should be seen as a science, to be studied in a scientific manner
(usually in a laboratory)
What role does evolution play in behaviour?
The Evolution of animals and plants is a fact. Charles
Darwin argued that, over time organisms become
adapted to their environment through Biological
Evolution.
The mechanism behind Biological Evolution is natural selection. Individuals must compete
for access to resources those who survive go on to have more reproductive success than
those who do not.
These behaviours will be passed on to offspring and will become more widespread in the
population; through the process of natural selection, successive generations will develop
behaviours that are even more likely to lead to survival.
What is heredity?
the passing of characteristics from one generation to the next through
genes. Genes carry the instructions for a particular characteristic (such as
temperament or intelligence), but how this characteristic develop partly depends on
the interaction of the gene with other genes and how they interact with the
environment (nature vs nurture debate).
What is the genotype?
refers to their genetic make-up inherited from parents.
For instance, a person may have genes that code for being tall.
What is the phenotype?
the physical appearance and observable
characteristics and behaviour that depend on genes and environment. For
example, height may be reduced by a child’s diet or by illness.
Positive evaluation for the Biological Approach?
Research - bio approach strongly uses scientific method - has some of the most sophisticated equipment in psychology (eg fmris), aside from cog neuroscience. increases precision and objectivity of the approach
issues/debates biological reductionism allows for analysis and testing of isolated variables
Negative evaluation for the Biological Approach?
research - bio approach can effectively establish correlation between variables, but less so with causation. eg concordance rate with MZ twins assumes the link is bc of biology, but could just as likely be a result of environment
issues/debates - similarly to previous, bio approach has difficulty separating nature from nurture; case of MZ twins
Outline the Psychodynamic Approach?
Assumptions
* Freud suggested our behaviour and feelings are powerfully affected
by unconscious motives.
* Our behaviour and feelings as adults (including psychological problems) are rooted
in our childhood experiences.
* Personality is composed of three parts, the ID, Ego and Superego which are in
constant conflict with one another
* Personality develops in stages shaped as innate drives are modified by different
conflicts at different times in childhood during psychosexual development.
* Psychic determinism: all behaviour has a cause/reason
What is the role of the unconcious in the PD approach?
Sigmund Freud believed in the existence of a part of the mind that
was inaccessible to conscious thought. He referred to this as the
unconscious mind. Freud believed most of our everyday actions and
behaviours are not controlled consciously but are the product of the
unconscious mind.
Freud believed the mind prevents traumatic memories from the
unconscious from reaching conscious awareness which might cause
anxiety and therefore the mind uses defence mechanism to prevent
this.
What is repression?
This refers to the unconscious blocking of unacceptable thoughts and impulses. These
repressed thoughts and feelings still influence behaviour without the individual being
aware. For example a child who is abused by a parent may have no recollection of these
events but has trouble forming relationships.
What is denial?
Denial is the refusal to accept reality so as to avoid having to deal with any painful
feelings that might be associated with that event. The person acts as if the traumatic
event had not happened something that those around them find to be quite bizarre. For
example, an alcoholic will often deny they have a drinking problem even after being
arrested several times for being drunk and disorderly
What is displacement?
This involves the redirection of thoughts or feelings in situations where the person feels
unable to express themselves in the presence of the person they should be directed
towards. Instead they may take this our on another individual or object, this gives their
feelings a route for expression even though they are misapplied.
What is the Id?
The Id operates solely in the unconscious Freud describes this as an individual’s animal
instincts. It operates according to the pleasure principle and demands immediate
gratification.
What is the ego?
The Ego is the mediator between the ID and the Super Ego.
The Ego forms compromise between the instinctive Id and
moralistic demands of the Super Ego and operates on the
reality principle
What is the superego?
The Superego is the morality principle which is formed around
the age of 5. It is the individual’s internalised state of right and
wrong. It is said to be formed by parental upbringing and
punishes the ego for wrongdoing through the feeling of guilt.
What happens in the oral stage?
Oral: age 0-1
Focus of Libido/
Activities: Mouth, tongue
Biting and chewing
Development: Weaning off breast feeding, Ego develops
Consequence of
Fixation Adult
Personality: smoking, overeating
What happens in the anal stage?
anal: age 1-3
Focus of Libido/Activities: anus, bowel/bladder control
Development: toilet training
Consequence of Fixation Adult
Personality: cleanliness/messiness
What happens in the Phallic stage?
phallic: age 3-6
Focus of Libido/Activities: genitals/masturbation
Development:
Consequence of Fixation Adult
Personality:
