Approaches Flashcards
Who was wundt?
The father of psychology, started controlled empirical research
What did wundt do?
Opened the first psychological lab in Leipzig Germany studying internal mental processes. Used introspection (looking inwards and self examination) analysing your own conscious experience to standard stimuli (such as metronome) reporting present experience such as sensations, emotional reaction, mental images
What is structuralism?
Breaking thoughts about an object down into separate elements was an attempt to uncover the structure of the mind
Evaluation of wundts work?
Paved the way for later scientifically controlled research in psychology
Criticised by behaviourist learning theorists who thought introspection was not scientific, they saw the mind as a black box not open to objectivity
Study of internal processes was later continued cognitive psychologists who built models of how systems such as memory worked. Experimentation not introspection.
What is the behaviourist approach?
Developed in an attempt to make psychology more scientific by using highly controlled experiments, criticised earlier attempt to study internal mental processes, sees the mind as a black box
What is classical conditioning?
Learning by association. Learning happens when a neutral stimulus is consistently paired with an unconditioned stimulus so that eventually the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus producing the response caused by the UCS
What was pavlovs study?
Demonstrated this in dogs who would associate the sound of the bell or metronome with food and drool to the CS
What is stimulus generalisation?
Conditioned response that happens with similar stimuli. E.g. little Albert was classically conditioned to fear a white rat and became afraid of a dog, fur coat and a Santa mask
What is operant conditioning!
Learning by trial and error. Learning from connection between behaviour and consequences
What was skinners study?
Demonstrated on rats that learnt from trial and error that pulling on a leaver would release a food pellet. The leaver pulling behaviour became more frequent and deliberate over time. The rats also learnt to press the leaver to stop the floor of the cage being electrocuted for 30 seconds.
What are the types of reinforcement?
Positive (adding a stimulus to increase a behaviour
Negative (removing a stimulus to increase behaviour)
Punishment (adding a stimulus to decrease a behaviour)
Extinction (stopping reinforcement will result in behaviour stopping over time)
What was little Albert?
Showed fear was a learnt response, suggesting not instinctual. Led to the development of behavioural explanation and counter conditioning treatments for phobias
Negatives of behaviouralist approach?
Used in an attempt to control human behaviour - unethical
Environmentally deterministic. Behaviours are not free will. Hard determinist
Reductionist approach focusing on lower level of explanation. Lacks meaning for complex behaviours
Research with animals, hard to generalise.
Positives of behaviourist approach?
Uses objective scientific methods - systematically manipulating variables, focusing on observable behaviour demonstrates cause and effect
What is social learning theory?
Agrees with behaviourist results from learnt experience, disagrees with behaviourist approach of ignoring internal mental processes, suggesting they must be present for learning. Focused on learning taking place in a social context due to exposure to others behaviour.
Types of behaviour?
Imitation: other behaviour is observed, if rewarded, more likely to reproduce the behaviour
Vicarious reinforcement: less likely to replicate if observed negative consequence
Modelling: others act as blueprints for our behaviour
Identification: models with characteristics we relate to are more like alt to be imitated
Mediational processes: cognitive processes between stimulus and response that influence likelihood of behaviour imitation. Attention, retention, motivation and reproduction
What was banduras study?
72 3-5 year olds. Children matched on levels of aggression. Groups watched videos of adults interacting aggressively and non-aggressively/neutrally with a bobo doll. Children matched on levels of aggression.
Found: aggression was imitated in group who watched adults model aggression. Other groups were not aggressive. Effect stronger if adult was the same gender as the child, suggests imitation and identification
Evaluation of Bandura?
Research used controlled variables and demonstrated behaviour was imitated. However a cause and effect relationship due to imitation in real life examples of aggression is difficult to study
Positive of SLT?
Inclusion of internal mental processes is improvement on behaviourism in explains human behaviour due to personal experience of having internal mental processes, face validity.
Negatives of SLT?
not observable directly - less scientific
Development of basic behaviours but not more abstract concepts
Sees behaviour as environmentally determined by some behaviours may be innate and better explained by biological factors
What is the cognitive approach?
Result of conscious and unconscious information processing
What are internal mental processes?
Series of stages of mental information processing. Stages are represented as theoretical models, similar to flow charts. The models produce theories testable by experiments.
What does the cognitive approach suggest?
Brain can be viewed as similar to a computer cpu and the mind as like a software that runs on the CPU. Computers also have inputs like the brain has senses and outputs like behaviour. Termed the computer model.
What is the role of schema?
Cognitive mental frameworks/blueprints of how people work. Formed by prior experience, these organise the large amount of new information we experience every moment and make assumptions on how to behave and think, however incorrect schema lead to stereotypes, prejudice and bias
What are inferences?
Going beyond observed observation to make assumptions about the underlying structure of mental processes that resulted in behaviour. Used as internal mental process cannot be directly observed.
Negatives of the cognitive theory?
Oversimplifies human behaviour by linking human thinking to a computer.
Soft determinism - thoughts are influenced by previous experience and brain structure
Using inferences is unscientific as they cannot be tested and can be influenced by bias.
Little explanation of how mental events work together in larger mental systems (attention and memory)
Positives of cognitive approach?
Develop artificial intelligence with applications like self driving and automation. Propel society further.
Cognitive neuroscience techniques by Braver provides neuro biological evidence of the CE. High activation detected in PFC, increasing with task difficulty.
What is the biological approach?
Behaviour is a result of the physical processes within the body, primarily neurological brain activity but also hormonal factors. These processes are inherited genetically and are a result of evolutionary pressure.
What is the influence of genes on behaviour?
Demonstrated in twin and family studies, showing the risk of disorders such as schizophrenia, OCD and depression increase significantly the more closely related people are to a sufferer as they share more genes
Genotypes and phenotypes?
Genotype: Genetic information inherited from parents
Phenotypes: physical and behavioural characteristics.
So certain genes (GT) code for the production of high testosterone leading to psychological characteristics (PT) such as high aggression
What are biological structures?
Neural areas in the brain are associated with behavioural functions such as amygdala (emotional response), orbital frontal cortex (future planning) and Broca’s area. The development of these areas of the brain and the connections between them are coded for genetically
What is neurochemistry?
Neurotransmitter such as serotonin and dopamine influence brain/synaptic functioning, imbalances result in changes in behaviour such as aggression levels and psychopathology; hormones released by the endocrine system in response to stressors result in flight or fight behavioural response.
What is evolution?
Selection of GTs that code for PTs that provide a survival and/or reproductive advantage. Behaviours with these advantages will become more prevalent in a population.
What is biological reductionism?
Reduce the explanation of complex behaviours to simple biological elements. Whilst ignoring other valid explanations.
How does plasticity not support the biological approach?
Complex interaction between the environment and the development not fully explained by biological approach
Drug treatment supports biological approach?
The effectiveness of drug treatments developed by biological psychologists, have been demonstrated by controlled nomothetic research using techniques that provide objectivity like blood tests.
Explanation of Disorders criticism of biological approach
Schizophrenia cannot be explained by genes however diatheses stress model is often used instead.
What is biological determinism
Suggests human behaviour and though processes are a result of biological processes. Goes against our view that our decisions are driven by free will.
What is the psychodynamic approach?
Focused on studying how unconscious psychological processes shape behaviour, thought to form during childhood experience, founded by Freud
What is the unconscious?
Not open to awareness, containing socially unacceptable thoughts, painful emotions, drives/instincts and memories that are repressed
Conscious -> preconscious -> subconscious
What is the structure of personality?
Formed of the ID (pleasure principle) present from birth, focused on satisfying its own need
Ego: (reality principle) develops from 2 years, focused on balancing two other aspects with rational thought
Superego: (morality principle) develops from 3-5 years focused on obeying learnt rules of society and uses guilt.
What are defence mechanisms?
Unconscious processes that reduce anxiety by distracting reality. Includes repression (makes memory inaccessible to consciousness)
Denial: refusing to accept the reality of a situation
Displacement (moving emotions from the source of an alternative)
What are the psychosexual stages?
Oral (0-18 months
Anal (18 months to 3 years).
Phallic (3-6 years)
Latent (6-puberty)
Genital (puberty to adult)
Positives of psychodynamic approach?
Freud ideas strongly influenced Bowlbys attachment theories.
Negatives of psychodynamic approach?
Psychic determinism. Mental processes are actually caused by unconscious system set in childhood
Freuds theories are developed from his own interpretation. Fear of horses = fear of father (highly susceptible to bias p)
Unconscious mind cannot be tested scientifically (unfalsifiable)
Limited - metanalysis, 66% of people with neurotic disorders recovered, 70% with no treatment.
What is humanistic psychology?
Developed in the 1960s, focuses on personal growth
What is free will?
Our actions are not determined by cause and effect. We choose our behaviours freely.
What is self actualisation?
Point at which the individual has achieved their full potential. Everyone has the capacity and motivation to work towards this goal.
What is Maslows hierarchy of needs?
Physical (survival) needs, safety, love/belonging, esteem (respect) needs. Few people manage to satisfy all needs and self actualise.
What is focus on the self?
Each person has a self concept (how you see yourself) and an ideal self (how you wish to be) congruence is now close these two are
What are conditions of worth?
Requirements an individual feels they need to meet in order to be loved. Stops self actualisation
What is humanistic counselling?
Client centred therapy attempts to he,p the client achieve congruence and provides unconditional positive regard. Client is an expert solving the their own problems
Negatives of humanistic psychology?
Self actualisation is not clearly defined so not measurable or open to scientific study.
Culture bias - western societies prioritise individual success, collectivist cultures cultivate group success. Views collectivist cultures as inferior
Positive of humanistic psychology?
Considers all factors when studying humans, uses ideographic methods to study. (More valid, less reliable)
Humanistic theory is positive, suggests strategies for personal growth, other approaches fail at this.
Comparison: internal mental processes
Behaviourists: ignore role of conscious as unscientific
SLT: internal mental processes are importation in generation of behaviour
Cognitive: thoughts follow predictable systems that can be displayed in models
Biological: thoughts due to complex interactions with neurons.
Psychodynamic: unconscious mental processes dominated by ID/superego
Humanist: conscious mind is in control of actions and has free will
Comparison of approaches: disorders
Behaviourist: use techniques such as flooding for phobias
SLT: use reward mechanisms such as token economies alongside vicarious reinforcement
Cognitive: disorders are due to maladaptive thought processes. CBT used to correct.
Biological: imbalance of neurotransmitters, genes, brain structure. Drug treatment
Psychodynamic: due to childhood development. Psychotherapy as treatment, depends on process of introspection.
Humanist: focus is on healthy human. Unconditional positive regard in client therapy
Comparison for reductionism and holism
Behaviourist: environmentally reductionist, ignores mental processes.
SLT: less environmentally reductionist but still ignores other factors
Cognitive: machine reductionism. Mind is viewed as a series of processes
Biological: biologically reductionist, ignores learnt behaviours
Psychodynamic: reductionist to behaviours due to drives, however includes aspects as thoughts processes and learning
Humanistic: fully holistic. Considers all aspects/levels of humanity
Comparison: childhood development
Behaviourist: development based on environmentally conditioned behaviours learnt via association, reinforcement and punishment
SLT: behaviours can be learnt socially during development
Cognitive: development by acquiring schemas
Biological: development strongly influenced by genetic factors
Psychodynamic: childhood experience fundamental in development of adult emotional disorders
Humanistic: healthy development requires unconditional postage regard and satisfying hierarchy of needs
Comparison: nature/nurture
Behaviourist: nurture, no role for instincts, shaped by environment
SLT: nurture, shaped by others experiences
Cognitive: both, brain structure and learnt experiences
Biological: nature results of pre-existing neurotransmitters gene and brain structure effect
Psychodynamic: both innate drives and the role of childhood experiences in shaping behaviour
Humanist : experiences most important, but complex interactions with biological aspects
Comparison: ideographic/nomothetic
Behaviourist: nomothetic, experiments proving general laws
SLT: nomothetic, use of experiments for determining general laws
Cognitive: mainly nomothetic with the use of general mental methods
Biological: nomothetic, biological studies give general laws
Psychodynamic: ideographic use of case study, attempt to generalise findings (nomothetic)
Humanist: ideographic. No attempt to make general laws. Studies subjective individual experience
Comparison: free will
Behaviourist: environmentally determined, stimulus/response
SLT: soft determinism, learning determines behaviour , role for choice
Cognitive: soft determinism, thoughts affected by schemas but consciousness can override
Biological: biologically determined due to interactions of neurotransmitters genes and brain structure
Psychodynamic. Psychically determined, behaviour caused by unconscious mental processes
Humanist: humans express free will in their conscious decision making.
