Approaches Flashcards
Origins of psychology
Wundt’s methods were unreliable: a criticism of Wundt’s structuralist approach mainly from behaviourists, was that this approach relied primarily on ‘nonobservable’ responses. Although participants could report on their conscious experiences, the processes (e.g memory perception) were considered unobservable. His approach ultimately failed because of lack of reliability of his methods. Introspective experiments were not reliably reproducible by other researchers. Although, Pavlov and Thorndike were already achieving reliably reproducible results.
A scientific approach tests assumptions about behaviour: because of its reliance on objective and systematic methods of observation, knowledge acquired using scientific methods is more than just passive acceptance of theories about behaviour. This means scientific methods are able to establish the causes of behaviour through the use of methods that are empirical and replicable. A consequence of this is that if scientific theories no longer fit the facts, they can be refined or abandoned, meaning scientific knowledge is self-corrective.
A scientific approach is not always appropriate: not all psychologists share the view that all human behaviour, can or should be explored, by scientific methods. If human behaviour is not subject to laws and regularities implied by scientific methods, then predictions become impossible and these methods are inappropriate. Likewise, much of psychology is unobservable so cannot be measured with a degree of accuracy. A consequence is, much psychological knowledge is inferential (a gap between the actual data obtained in research investigations and the theories put forward to explain this data)
Behaviourist approach
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING HAS BEEN APPLIED TO THERAPY: within the treatment of phobias, systematic de-sensitisation, giving it high ecological validity. The CR is the anxiety of the phobia, can be unconditioned to be associated with relaxation rather than fear. In doing this, we’re eliminating the learned response. This is useful for day to day phobias such as fear of flying and is applicable/ useful across lots of different settings, increasing the ecological use.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING IS ONLY APPROPRIATE FOR SOME LEARNING: as species face different challenges to survive, some relationships between CS and UCS are more difficult/ easier to establish. Seligman (1970) animals are prepared to learn associations that are significant in terms of survival needs, yet unprepared to learn associations that are not significant (sound of bell with food). Therefore classical conditioning may be more appropriate for learning specific types of association, like important and for survival.
OPERANT CONDITIONING BASED ON EXPERIMENTAL WORK: Skinner’s research was reliant on experimental method, using controlled variables to discover possible causal relationship. Skinner’s reliance on the Skinner box by manipulating then consequences of behaviour (IV) he was able to accurately measure effects of rats behaviour (DV). This allowed him to establish a cause and effect relationship between consequences of a behaviour (positive or negative) and future frequency of its occurrence.
OVER-RELIANCE ON NON-HUMAN ANIMALS IN RESEARCH: Skinner’s research has received some criticism because his experiments involved study of non-animals rather than humans. His reliance on rats and pigeons means it tells us little about human behaviour. Humans have free will rather than having behaviour determined by positive and negative reinforcement. However, skinner believed free will is merely an illusion and external influences that ‘guide’ our behaviour on a daily basis.
Social learning theory
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY HAS USEFUL APPLICATIONS: have been usefully applied to increase our understanding of many areas of human behaviour, including criminal behaviour. Akers (1998) suggests that the probability of someone engaging in criminal behaviour increases when they are exposed to models who commit criminal behaviour. Ulrich (2003) supports the importance of social learning in this process in a review of the literature, finding that the strongest cause of violent behaviour in adolescence was association with delinquent peer groups, where violence was both modelled and rewarded.
RESEARCH SUPPORT FOR IDENTIFICATION: according to social learning theory, observing a model similar to the self should lead to more learning than observing dissimilar model. Fox and Bailenson (2009) found evidence for this using computer generated ‘virtual’ humans engaging in exercise or merely loitering. The models looked either similar or dissimilar to the individual participants. Participants who viewed their virtual model exercising engaged in more exercise in the 24 hours following the experiment than participants who viewed their virtual model merely loitering or a dissimilar model exercising. They concluded that greater identification with a model leads to more learning because it is easier to visualise the self in the place of the model, so the observer feels as if he or she is having the same experience.
A PROBLEM OF ESTABLISHING CASUALITY: a major criticism of social learning theory explanations of deviant behaviour relates to its claim that increased associations with deviant peers increases the likelihood that an individual will adopt the same values and behaviours. Siegel and McCormick (2006) suggest that young people who possess deviant attitudes and values (e.g low self-control) would seek out peers with similar attitudes and behaviours, as they are more fun to be with than their less reckless counterparts. The cause of delinquency, therefore, may not be social learning as a result of exposure to deviant role models, but the possession of deviant attitudes prior to contact with deviant peers.
A PROBLEM OF COMPLEXITY: in focussing exclusively on the processes of social learning, advocates of this approach disregard other potential influences on behaviour. For example, in explaining the development of gender role behaviour, social learning theorists would emphasise the importance of gender-specific modelling. In real life, however, a child is exposed to many different influences, all of them interacting in complex ways. These include genetic predispositions, media portrayals, locus of control and so on. This presents a serious problem for social learning researchers. If virtually anything can have an influence on a specific behaviour, it becomes very difficult to show that one particular thing (social learning) is the main casual influence.
THE IMPORTANCE OF IDENTIFICATION IN SOCIAL LEARNING: media attempts to change health-related behaviours have shown that models similar to the target audience are more likely to bring about identification and greater social learning. To achieve this, health campaigns have tried to match characters that model the desired behaviour with the target audience in terms of physical characteristics, attitudes and behaviours. Greater identification with model is then expected to influence modelling behaviour. Adnsager et al (2006) found that perceived similarity to a model in an anti-alcohol advertisement was positively related to the message’s effectiveness. Based on this finding, the researchers suggest that some of a message’s potency may be lost if the individual finds it difficult to identify with a given model.
The cognitive approach
COGNITIVE APPROACH HAS MANY APPLICATIONS: for example, the cognitive approach to psychopathology has been able to explain dysfunctional behaviour in terms of faulty thinking processes. This has led to the development of treatments for illness such as depression with cognitive-based therapies. These treatments, which aim to change dysfunctional ways of thinking, have been shown to be successful in some mental disorders which suggests that the emphasis on mental process for explaining mental disorders is valid.
CAN BE CONSIDERED A SCIENTIFIC APPROACH: although cognitive psychologists create theories and models of behaviour, they do this as a result of experimentation with human participants. This means that their conclusions are based on far more than common sense and introspection, which can give a misleading picture. As such, the approach can be seen as systematic, objective and rigorous way for reaching accurate conclusions about how the mind works.
LIMITATION: USE OF COMPUTER MODELS: for example, the approach uses terms such as ‘encoding’ and ‘storage’ for the mind which are borrowed from this field. However, there are important differences between the human mind and computer programmes. For example, human minds make mistakes, can forget, and are able to ignore available information when necessary. These are all fundamental differences.
LIMITATION: IGNORES IMPORTANT FACTORS: although the cognitive approach tells us how cognitive processes take place, it doesn’t tell us why they take place. The role of emotion and motivation are largely ignored. This may be a result of the computer analogy and over-dependence of this approach on information-processing analogies. Human possess motivation and emotion, whereas information-processing machines do not.
Biological approach
IMPORTANCE OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD: uses the scientific method, particularly the experimental method, as its main method of investigation. Experimental studies take place in highly controlled environments so other researchers are able to replicate research studies under the same experimental conditions, adding validity of the original findings if they can be reproduced. The use of sophisticated imaging and recording techniques has increased the precision and objectivity of experimental research in this area. As a result, these techniques have contributed to the scientific validity of the biological approach.
APPLICATIONS OF THE BIOLOGICAL APPROACH: a strength of the biological approach is that it provides clear predictions, e.g about the effects of neurotransmitters on behaviour or influence of biological rhythms on behaviour. This has led to significant applications of biological research in the real world. Research into the role of neurochemical imbalance in depression has led to the development of effective drug treatments. This further demonstrates the value of adopting a biological approach to the study of a human behaviour.
BIOLOGICAL APPROACH IS REDUCTIONIST: the biological approach is criticised for its belief that complex behaviour can be broken down into the actions of genes, neurochemicals and hormones. E.g many explanations of mental disorders are reductionist because genes or neurochemical imbalances are believed to be the main cause of these disorders. However, whilst a reductionist approach lends itself to scientific investigation, we cannot fully understand a behaviour without also taking account of other factors that influence it. These include: cognitive, emotional and cultural factors, all of which have a significant influence on behaviour.
PROBLEMS FOR EVOLUTIONARY EXPLANATIONS: because human behaviours can evolve through either genetic or cultural routes, a biologically based evolutionary explanation may have limited explanatory power. Critics claim that many established patterns of human behaviour have purely cultural origins with no obvious survival value. E.g in places like china and India, the sex ratio at birth is strongly biased in favour of males. This cultural preference for sons has resulted in sex-selective abortion or the withholding of resources from daughters. Behaviours shaved by cultural evolution can change more rapidly.
Humanistic approach
CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN THE HIERARCHY OF NEEDS: in a later development to his theory Maslow did acknowledge that, for some people, needs may appear in a different order or may even be absent altogether. This is borne out by cross-cultural evidence. For example, a study carried out in China (Nevis, 1983) found that belongingness needs were seen as more fundamental than physiological needs and self-actualisation was defined more in terms of contributions to the community than in terms of individual development. Many studies have confirmed that Europeans and Americans focus more on personal identify in defining their self-concept whereas Chinese, Japanese and Koreans define self-concept more in terms of social relationships.
RESEARCH SUPPORT FOR CONDITIONS OF WORTH: adolescents research has shown consistent evidence with Rogers’ view. Individuals who experience conditional positive regard are likely to display more ‘false self behaviour’ doing things to meet others expectations even when they clash with their own values. Harter et al (1996) discovered that teenagers who feel they have to fulfil certain conditions to gain their parents approval frequently end up not liking themselves. Consistent with Rogers’ predictions, adolescents who created a ‘false self’ pretending to be the kind of person his or her parents would love were more likely to develop depression and a tendency to lose touch with their true self.
HUMANISTIC RESEARCH METHODS DO NOT ESTABLISH CAUSALITY: evaluating humanistic approach scientifically is difficult because most of the evidence used to support this approach fails to establish a causal relationship between variables. Rogers in particular was an advocate of non-experimental methods, arguing it would make it impossible to verify the results of counselling. Most psychologists would argue that without experimental evidence, evaluation of a therapy that underlies it becomes very difficult. Although some studies have shown personal growth as a result of receiving humanistic counselling, these do not show that the therapy caused the changes, a fundamental requirement of scientific psychology.
HUMANISTIC APPROACH IS UNREALISTIC: represents an overly idealised and unrealistic view of human nature. Critics argue that people are not as inherently good and ‘growth oriented’ as humanistic theorists suggest, and the approach does not adequately recognise people’s capacity for pessimism and self destructive behaviour. The view that personality development is directed only by an innate potential for growth is seen as an oversimplification, as is the humanistic assumption that all problems arise from blocked self-actualisation. This suggests encouraging people to focus on their own self development rather than on situational forces may be neither realistic nor appropriate in modern society.
Psychodynamic approach
A PIONEERING APPROACH- suggested new methodological procedures for gathering evidence (case studies) and the development of the approach was based on observations of behaviour rather than relying on introspection. From these observations, Freud and his followers were the first to demonstrate the potential of psychological, rather than biological, treatments for disorders such as depression and anxiety. This approach has led to successful treatments, de Maat et al’s (2009) large scale review of psychotherapy studies concluded that psychoanalysis produced significant improvements in symptoms that were maintained in the years after treatment.
SCIENTIFIC SUPPORT FOR PSYCHOANALYTIC APPROACH: critics of psychoanalysis often claim there is no scientific evidence for psychoanalysis and that its claims are not testable or falsifiable. However, many of the claims of psychoanalysis have been tested and many have confirmed using scientific methodology. Fisher and Greenberg (1996) summarised 2500 studies concluding that experimental studies of psychoanalysis compare well with studies relevant to any other major area of psychology. Fisher and Greenberg’s support for the existence of unconscious motivation in human behaviour and for the defence mechanisms of repression, denial and displacement adds scientific credibility to psychoanalytic explanations of human behaviour.
GENDER-BIASED- views of women and female sexuality were less well developed than male sexuality. Freud seemed content to remain ignorant of female sexuality and how this may differ to male sexuality. Dismissing women and their sexuality in such a way is problematic, not only because Freud treated many female participants, but also because his theories are still so influential today.
CULTURE-BIASED: Sue and SUe (2008) argue that psychoanalysis has little relevance for people from non-western cultures. Psychoanalysts believe mental disorders are the result of traumatic memories being ‘locked’ in the unconscious, and that freeing them through therapy gives the individual the chance to deal with them in the supportive therapeutic environment. However, they claim many cultural groups do not value insight in the same way that Western cultures do. In china, for example, a person who is depressed or anxious avoids thoughts that cause distress rather than being willing to discuss them openly. This contrasts with the Western belief that open discussion and insight are always helpful in therapy.
PSYCHOANALYSIS: A COMPREHENSIVE THEORY- one of the main strengths of psychoanalysis is the comprehensive nature of the theory. As well as its therapeutic applications, psychoanalysis can be used to explain many other aspects of human behaviour outside the realm of psychology. It has been used to form literary criticism , works of literature such as Shakespeare’s Hamlet have repressed messages hidden beneath the surface of the text- many aspects of Hamlet’s psyche are seen as a projection of Shakespeare’s own mind. As a result, we are able to interpret these works using psychoanalytic concepts, delving into the mind of the author or the functional character and so enrich our understanding of their psychological state.
