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MRS BARNES psychology > Approaches > Flashcards

Approaches Flashcards

1
Q

What were the two assumptions the emergence of psychology as a science was based on?

A
  • all behaviour is seen as being caused (determinism)
  • it is possible to make predictions on how humans behave in certain situations (predictability)
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2
Q

What does replicable mean in terms of the scientific method?

A
  • can be repeated by others to obtain similar results
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3
Q

What does objective mean in terms of the scientific method?

A
  • researchers don’t let preconceived ideas/ biases influence the collection of data
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4
Q

What does systematic mean in terms of the scientific method?

A
  • carried out in an orderly way
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5
Q

What are the main steps of the scientific cycle?

A
  • objective, systematic and replicable observation
  • building, refining or falsifying
  • development of a scientific theory
  • testing
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6
Q

What are the main criticisms of the origins of psychology?

A
  • Wundt’s methods were unreliable (thought by behaviourists) as they relied primarily on non-observable responses, they claimed that introspective “experimental” results were not reliably reproducible.
  • Introspection is not particularly accurate, as Wilson and Nibett (1977) claimed we have little knowledge of the causes of our behaviour, in particular when studying implicit (unknown to us) attitudes as they exist out of conscious awareness so were are unable to self report.
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7
Q

What is the main strength of the origins of psychology?

A
  • A scientific approach allows us to test assumptions about behaviour due to the reliance on objective/ systematic observation. This enables us to establish causes of behaviour through methods that are replicable.
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8
Q

What is empiricism (origins of psychology)?

A
  • the belief that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience
  • characterised by the use of scientific method
  • all behaviour has a cause therefore it is possible to predict it.
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9
Q

What is introspection (origins of psychology)?

A
  • process by which a person gains knowledge about their own mental/ emotional states as a result of the examination of observation of their conscious thoughts and feelings
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10
Q

What is scientific method (origins of psychology)?

A
  • refers to the use of investigative methods that are objective, systematic and replicable
  • the formation of hypothesis based on these methods
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11
Q

What is structuralism (origins of psychology)?

A
  • breaking down behaviours into basic elements, i.e. sensation and perception
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12
Q

What was the aim of the study by Wilhelm Wundt?

A

Aim = to study the structure of the mind, by breaking down basic behaviours into basic elements.
This is known as structuralism and his technique to do this was introspection

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13
Q

What did Wundt believe about the human mind (origins of psychology)?

A
  • it could be studied scientifically, under experimental conditions
  • he studied aspects of behaviour such as sensation, perception and reaction time.
  • he eventually came to realise that higher mental processes (learning, language and emotions) could not be studied in a controlled manner (instead in terms of trends)
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14
Q

What was Wundt’s study of perception (origins of psychology)?

A
  • participants would be presented with carefully controlled stimuli (e.g. visual/ auditory tones)
  • they would be asked to provide a description of inner processes they were experiencing
  • this made it possible to compare different responses to the same stimuli
  • so he could establish general theories about perception and other mental processes
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15
Q

What are the key aspects of the behaviourist approach?

A
  • rejected vagueness of introspection, focused on observable events instead
  • all behaviour is learned either through classical or operant conditioning
  • AKA learning approach
  • mainly used experimental methods
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16
Q

What is classical conditioning ( behaviourist approach)?

A
  • reflex responses that occur involuntarily, when certain stimuli are present
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17
Q

What happens during classical conditioning (behaviourist approach)?

A
  • Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) causes an Unconditioned Response (UCR)
  • UCR is paired with Neutral Stimulus (NS) and causes a UCR through association [acquisition stage]
  • NS now becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) causing a conditioned response (CR)
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18
Q

What was the Pavlov’s doges experiment on classical conditioning (behaviourist approach)?

A
  • investigated the salivary reflex of dogs when food was presented
  • when food was associated with a bell, after a while, even without food, cause a salivary reflex in the dogs
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19
Q

What are the important features of classical (and mostly operant) conditioning (behaviourist approach)?

A
  • timing = if NS occurs after the UCS or time interval is too great, no conditioning
  • extinction = CS does not become permanently established, can lose ability to produce CR
  • spontaneous recovery = after extinction, if NS and UCS paired again, link is made quicker between them
  • stimulus generalisation = once an animal has been conditioned, they will also respond to similar stimuli to the CS
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20
Q

What is operant conditioning (behaviourist approach)?

A
  • behaviour can be “shaped” through reward/ reinforcement and punishment
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21
Q

What are the types of reinforcement for operant conditioning (behaviourist approach)?

A

Positive = behaviour produces a consequence that is pleasant (reward)
Negative = behaviour removes something unpleasant

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22
Q

What are the types of punishment for operant conditioning (behaviourist approach)?

A

Positive = behaviour produces an unpleasant consequence
Negative = behaviour takes away something pleasant

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23
Q

What is the definition for reinforcement in operant conditioning (behaviourist approach)?

A
  • strengthens a particular behaviour so it is more likely to happen again
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24
Q

What can reinforcement schedules be (behaviourist approach)?

A
  • partial (more effective)
  • continuous
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25
Q

What was the Skinner’s Box experiment on operant conditioning (behaviourist approach)?

A
  • investigated operant conditioning in rats
  • rats move around the cage and accidentally presses a lever, and a food pellet falls into the cage (reinforcer)
  • presses lever more often
  • if food pellets stop, rat presses it a few more times and then abandons it (extinction).
26
Q

What are the main criticism of behaviourism and how did Skinner react?

A
  • Overly reliant on non-human animals in research, for example critics claim Skinner’s reliance on rats and pigeons means his studies tell us little about human behaviour, as humans have free will and not all behaviour is determined by reinforcement. However, Skinner argued that free will is merely an illusion and behaviour is actually “guided” by external influences.
27
Q

What are the main strength of behavourism?

A
  • Classical conditioning has been applied to therapy as scientists have been able to reduce anxiety with various phobias, through systematic desensitisation (therapy based on classical conditioning).
    This eliminates the learned anxious response (CR) that is associated with a feared object or situation, which makes it possible to replace this CR with another (i.e. relaxation) so the patient is no longer anxious in the presence of the CS.
28
Q

What is the social learning theory approach?

A
  • modern behaviourist approach, that also acknowledges that learning can be through conditioning as well as cognitive processes (mental)
  • i.e observation and imitation
29
Q

What are the two different types of learning (social learning theory approach)?

A
  • INDIRECT - learning through observation of others (vicarious learning)
  • DIRECT - learning through classical conditioning
30
Q

What is modelling (social learning theory approach)?

A
  • a form of learning where individuals learn a particular behaviour by observing another individual performing that behaviour
31
Q

What are the two different types of modelling (social learning theory approach)?

A
  • live = parents, siblings, cousins, etc
  • symbolic = celebrities (i.e. actors, singers, entrepreneurs)
32
Q

What is imitation (social learning theory approach)?

A
  • action of using someone/ something as a model and copying their behaviour
33
Q

What is identification (social learning theory approach)?

A
  • form of influence where an individual adopts an attitude or behaviour because they want to be associated with a particular person/ group.
34
Q

What is vicarious reinforcement (social learning theory approach)?

A
  • learning that is not a result f direct reinforcement of behaviour, but through observing someone else being reinforced for that behaviour
35
Q

What is the definition of mediational processes (social learning theory approach)?

A
  • refers to the internal mental processes that exist between environmental stimuli and the response made by an individual to that stimuli.
  • “mediating the ability to immitate”
36
Q

What are the 4 main mediational processes (social learning theory approach)?

A
  • attention (learning)
  • retention (learning)
  • motor reproduction [whether they have the physical ability to imitate ] (performance)
  • motivation (performance)
37
Q

What is the key study by Bandura et al (1961) (social learning theory approach)?

A

Aim = investigate imitative learning.
Procedure = children observed aggressive / non-aggressive adult models interacting with a life-sized Bobo Doll. The aggressive mdels displayed distinct physical acts towards the Doll, e.g. striking it with a mallet. The children were then taken to this room, individually.
Findings = children who observed the physically violent model displayed the same characteristics and vice versa. About 1/3 of the children who observed aggressive model repeated their verbal responses.

In a follow up study, Bandura found children who saw model being rewarded for aggressive acts were more likely to show a high level of aggression in their own play (vicarious reinforcement)

38
Q

What are the main criticism of the social learning theory approach?

A
  • Problem of establishing causality, for example, Siegel and McCormick (2006) suggest young people who possess deviant attitudes/ values (e.g. low self control) would seek out peers with similar attitudes/ behaviours, as they are more fun to be with. This suggests cause of delinquency may not be exposure to to deviant role models but possession of deviant attitudes prior to contact with peers.
39
Q

What is the main strength of Social Learning Theory Approach?

A
  • Real world application, shown by Akers (1998) found the probability of engagement in criminal behaviour increases when exposed to models who have engaged in criminal behaviour, as they have the expectation that there would be positive consequences for their own criminality. Ulrich (2003) found the strongest cause of violence in adolescence was association with delinquent peers, where violence was modelled and rewarded.
40
Q

What was the fundamental belief of the cognitive approach?

A
  • behaviour is the result of internal mental processes that operate together, including attention and thinking.
41
Q

How does the cognitive approach explain behaviour?

A
  • considers ways in which we perceive information, memory, problem solving, and thinking
  • AKA information processing models
42
Q

What are the three components o the cognitive approach?

A
  • schemas
  • use of theoretical/ computer models
  • emergence of cognitive neuroscience
43
Q

What are schemas (cognitive approach)?

A
  • framework in the brain that helps organise and interpret information
  • allows us to take shortcuts through the mass of information daily
  • can exclude information that is not relevant
  • formation of stereotypes
  • helps us to fill in gaps
44
Q

What are theoretical models (cognitive approach)?

A
  • where information is based on research, and shows stages of mental processes
  • allows testing/ updating
  • i.e. Baddeley’s WMM / MSM
45
Q

What are computer models (cognitive approach)?

A
  • used as analogies i.e. hard disc = LT memory
  • input into the computer determines the output, in the same ways in which humans encode sensory information, and process it therefore determining behaviour.
46
Q

What is cognitive neuroscience (cognitive approach)?

A
  • studying the living brain, providing detailed information about brain structures involved in mental processing
  • using non-invasive neuroimaging techniques i.e PET and fMRI scans
  • Burnett et al (2009) found when people feel guilty, several regions of the brain are active including the medial prefrontal cortex (social emotions)
47
Q

What is the main strength of the cognitive approach?

A
  • has many applications, such as in social cognition (social psychology) it has helped psychologists to better understand how we interpret actions of others, and in psychopathology, cognitive approach explains how much of dysfunctional behaviour can be traced back to faulty thinking processes. Cognitive-based interventions has led to successful treatments such as OCD and Depression.
48
Q

What is the main limitation of the cognitive approach?

A
  • lacks ecological validity, as their is little in common between cognitive psychology tasks and natural everyday experiences. For example, experiments in memory use artificial test materials that are relatively meaningless in everyday life, rather than being based on the way in which memory is used in everyday life (i.e. random digits vs. childhood memories). This makes it unlikely we will be able to generalise these findings to real life situations.
49
Q

What is included in the Biological Approach?

A
  • genes
  • biological structures
  • neurochemistry
  • evolution
50
Q

How do genes influence behaviour (biological approach)?

A
  • genes pass characteristics through generations, the extent to which a physiological characteristic is passed down is through genes and the environment (nature-nurture debate)
  • this is through the genotypes (inherited genetic code in DNA) and the phenotype (how this code is shown/ physical appearance), however you can’t determine the genotype only through the phenotype due to dominant/ recessive genes
  • the genetic basis for behaviour is unique for every individual so we differ in terms of personality/ abilities etc, which is determined by heritability (amount of variability in a trait within a population), the more a trait is inherited by genetic factors, the greater its heritability
51
Q

What biological structures influence behaviour (biological approach)?

A
  • neurons (nerve cells) and the nervous system
  • brain
52
Q

How do neurons and the nervous system influence behaviour (biological approach)?

A
  • comprised of several connected systems, including the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system (somatic and autonomic nervous systems)
  • nervous systems carry messages from one part of the body to another using neurons
  • neurons transmit nerve impulses in the form of electrical signals across synapses
  • many aspects of behaviour are under neuronal control, including eating, breathing and sexual behaviour
53
Q

How does the brain influence behaviour (biological approach)?

A
  • the largest part of the brain is the cerebrum (85%)
  • outer surface of the cerebrum is called the cerebral cortex, responsible for many of the ‘higher order’ functions such as thoughts and language
  • cerebrum is divided into two halves (hemispheres) and then divided into four parts each (lobes)
  • frontal, temporal, parietal and occipital lobes
54
Q

How does neurochemistry influence behaviour (biological approach)?

A
  • neurotransmitters
  • hormones
55
Q

How do neurotransmitters influence behaviour (biological approach)?

A
  • neurotransmitters (chemicals) are released when a nerve impulse reaches the end of one neuron
  • travels from one neuron to the next across a junction called the synapse
  • there are many different types, some of which trigger the receiving neuron to send an impulse and some stop it from doing so
  • excitatory neurotransmitters trigger nerve impulses in receiving neurons and stimulate the brain into action
  • inhibitory neurotransmitters inhibit nerve impulses in order to calm the brain and balance mood
56
Q

What is an example of an excitatory neurotransmitters (biological approach)?

A
  • Dopamine
  • associated with our ‘drive’ and motivation
57
Q

What is an example of an inhibitory neurotransmitter (biological approach)?

A
  • Serotonin
  • needed to maintain a stable mood
  • Crokett et al (2008) found that when serotonin levels are low, people tend to display increased aggression
58
Q

How do hormones influence behaviour (biological approach)?

A
  • they are chemicals produced by endocrine glands which together make up the endocrine system
  • in response from a signal from the brain, hormones are secreted directly into the bloodstream by endocrine glands, where they travel to ‘target cells’ and exert their influence by stimulating receptors on the surface of/inside cells
  • presence of a hormone causes a physiological reaction in the cell, altering activity
  • eg. Carré et al (2006) studied a Canadian ice hockey team over the course of a season. They found evidence of a surge in levels of hormone testosterone whenever the team played in their home stadium, suggesting hormone energised the players to defend their home territory
59
Q

How does evolution influence behaviour (biological approach)?

A
  • Darwin argued that over time organisms become adapted to their environment through biological evolution
  • mechanism behind evolution is natural selection
  • individuals within a species differ from each other in terms of physical characteristics and in their behaviour, some of this is inherited
  • competition for resources will depend on characteristics, some of those who survive will go on to reproduce offspring with such characteristics that will more likely lead to further reproduction than those without
  • these will become more widespread throughout the population
60
Q

Who studied evolution and it’s influence on behaviour in 1989 (biological approach)?

A
  • Buss studied 37 cultures and found universal similarities in human mate preferences
  • Women desired males with resources whilst men desired young, physically attractive women (indication of fertility and reproductive value)
  • Suggests there is a biological basis for human behaviour

MRS BARNES psychology (3 decks)

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