approaches Flashcards
When evaluating what do we use
DREAMS
What does DREAMS stand for
Determinism vs free will - external factors that affect behaviour vs a choice in behaviour
Reductionism vs holism - simplify complex behaviour into its basic units vs seeing something as a whole E.g looking into social and cultural factors
Evidence - which studies support this approach
Applications - can you use it in real life situations E.g treatments
Methodology - Which research methods are used by this approach, the strengths of the methods
Scientific methods - is it based on objective, empirical, reliable, replicable measures ?
Define the term introspection
Investigating internal events by examining conscious thoughts and feelings’
Describe introspection
Intropsection focuses on PRESENT experiences (1)
An individual’s conscious experience is systematically analysed. (1)
The individual would focus on an object, whilst listening to a stimulus e.g. metronome and look inwards noticing sensations and emotional reactions e.g. feelings and images. (1)
Analysis is broken up into components of thoughts, images and sensations. (1)
Define the term science
Gaining knowledge through the use of objective (factual) investigation.
Describe the research of Wundt
Wundt is known as the ‘Father of Psychology’.
He set up the first psychology laboratory in Germany in 1879 and published one of the first books on psychology, helping to establish the subject as an independent branch of science.
He used controlled environments to establish general theories about mental processes.
He used he scientific method to study the structure of sensation and perception using introspection, arguing that human experiences should be analysed in terms of its components e.g. sensations, emotional reactions e.g. feelings and images (our present experiences).
Outline the basics assumptions of the psychodynamic approach (at least two)
- Behaviour is due to unconscious motives
- Our understanding of ourselves is distorted by defence mechanisms
Describe the role of the unconscious
The unconscious is part of the mind that contains information we are not consciously aware of such as repressed memories,
the unconscious protects our conscious self from anxiety or fears.
The unconscious drives much of our behaviour such as our personality and behaviours.
Describe the conscious
The part of the mind that we know about and aware of – ‘the tip of the iceberg’.
Describe the pre conscious
The part of the mind that is just below the conscious mind – and includes thoughts and ideas which we may become aware of during dreams or ‘slips of the tongue’ (Freudian slip)
Describe the unconscious
The part of the mind that we are unaware of – biological drives and instincts and threatening and disturbing memories that have been repressed or locked away and forgotten but continue to drive our behaviour.
What parts is the personality made up of
Id
Ego
Superego
Describe the Id
PLEASURE PRINCIPLE.
The id is the unconscious part of the mind
Only Id is present at birth.
Throughout life it’s focus is on self (selfish) and expects immediate gratification
If this is too overpowering for the ego it can produce a selfish personality
What principle is the Id
Pleasure principle
Describe the ego
REALITY PRINCIPLE and is the ‘self.’
The rational and conscious part of the mind and forms from 18 months to 3 years.
Balances the demands to reduce conflict between the Id and Superego by using defence mechanisms.
What principle is the ego
Reality principle
& is the ‘self’
Describe the super ego
MORALITY PRINCIPLE
Part of the unconscious mind.
Forms between 3-6 years
Arises through identification with same-sex parent.
It is our internalised sense of right and wrong (conscience) based on parental values.
If this is too overpowering for the ego it can produce an anxious personality or feelings of guilt
What principle is the superego
Morality principle
Describe what is meant by the term ‘defence mechanism’ (2)
Unconscious strategies that the ego uses to manage the conflict between the Id and Superego (1)
For example, Repression – forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind. (2)
How are defence mechanisms used by the ego and how can overuse lead to abnormal behaviour
The Ego has a difficult job balancing the conflicting demands of the Id and Superego so it uses the defence mechanisms.
These are unconscious and stop the Ego from becoming overwhelmed with the conflicts.
However, defence mechanisms can distort a person’s reality (make it difficult to identify what is real and not real) and overuse can affect behaviour so they are not a long term solution.
What are the three defence mechanisms
Repression
Denial
Displacement
Define repression and give an example
Forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind.
For example, forgetting the trauma of your favourite pet dying.
Define denial and provide an example
Refusing to acknowledge an unpleasant aspect of reality.
For example, continuing to turn up for work even though you have been sacked.
Define displacement and provide an example
Transferring feelings from the true source of distressing emotion onto a less threatening substitute target.
For example, slamming the door after a row with your mum.
The psychosexual stages introduction
Therefore, Freud suggested that all children progress through 5 developmental stages, known as the Psychosexual Stages, as a way to explain how the Id gets sexual satisfaction from birth.
The psychosexual stages introduction 2
The child must resolve conflict at each stage before they can progress to the next stage. If they do not resolve the conflict they become ‘fixated’ which can lead to certain behaviours in adulthood.
What are the stages of psychosexual stages
Oral 0-1 years
Anal 1-3 years
Phallic 3-5 years
Latency 6-12 years
Genital 12 years
What is the oral stage
Gratification for the id is gained from the mouth such as from dummies, thumb sucking and the mother’s breast.
What is the consequence of unresolved conflict (fixation) in the oral stage
Oral fixation – smoking, biting nails, sarcastic and critical in the future.
What is the anal stage
Gratification for the id is gained from the anus such as expulsion or withholding of faeces (pooing),
What year does the oral stage form between
0-1 years
What age does the anal stage form between
1-3 years
What is the consequence of unresolved conflict (fixation) in the anal stage
Anal retentive personality – perfectionist, obsessive.
Anal expulsive personality – thoughtless, messy.
When does the phallic stage form between
3-5 years
What is the phallic stage
Gratification for the id is gained from exploring their own genitals.
The child will need to identify with it’s same sex parent and take on their values, attitudes and behaviours to resolve the conflict at this stage.
What is the consequence of unresolved conflict (fixation) in the phallic stage
Phallic personality – narcissistic, reckless, problems with authority
What years does the latency stage form between
6-12 years
What is the latency stage
Earlier conflicts are repressed
What years does the genital form between
12 years
What is the genital area
Sexual desires become conscious alongside puberty
What is the consequence of unresolved conflict (fixation) in the genital stage
Difficulty forming heterosexual relationships
What are the four features of the psychodynamic approach
F1 - the role of the unconscious
F2 - the structure of personality
F3 - Defence mechanisms
F4 - the psychosexual stages
What are the two learning approaches
Behaviourist approach - classical conditioning (Pavlov) and operant conditioning (Skinner)
Social learning theory - Bandura - observe imitate a model - vicarious reinforcement
Outline the basic assumptions of behavioural approach (at least two)
- Humans are born as a blank slate.
- All behaviour is learnt from the environment and therefore can be unlearnt.
The learning approach Ao1
Behaviourists were only interested in studying behaviour that can be observed and measured.
Watson rejected introspection claiming it was too subjective and not measureable.
Therefore, behaviourists rely on lab experiments as these are a better way of maintaining control and objectively measuring behaviour.
Behaviourists believe that animals can replace humans in research because they learn in the same way as humans.
What are the two features of the learning approach
F1 - Classical conditioning (Pavlov ‘s research)
F2 - Operant conditioning
Explanation classical conditioning
IVAN PAVLOV 1927 explained how behaviour is LEARNT through STIMULUS RESPONSE ASSOCIATION.
In this form of learning a neutral stimulus (one that produces no response) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus that produces an unconditioned response (this is automatic, not learnt).
If this pairing is repeated then the individual will learn to associate the neutral stimulus with the unconditioned stimulus. Therefore, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus which creates the conditioned response (this is learnt).
Explain pavlov’s research into salivation
Classical Conditioning is learning through stimulus, response associations. Ivan Pavlov showed that dogs could be conditioned to salivate to the sound of a bell.
The unconditioned stimulus was the food
The unconditioned response was salivation
The neutral stimulus was the bell as this didn’t mean anything to the dogs at first. (produced no response)
During the experiment the dogs were presented with the food once again. However this time Pavlov rang a bell at the same time. He repeated this association many times
The dogs learnt to associate the food (UCS) with the noise of the bell (NS).
The bell became the conditioned stimulus which would cause the conditioned response of salivation every time the dog heard it.
Explain operant conditioning introduction
Operant conditioning is another way we can learn behaviour which emphasised the importance of consequence – learning through REWARDS (REINFORCEMENT) and PUNISHMENT.
SKINNER explained how behaviour is influenced by the consequences of our own actions. He focused on the importance of reinforcement in increasing a behaviour and punishment in stopping behaviour.
Explain the difference between negative reinforcement and punishment
Negative reinforcement is performing a behaviour to remove an unpleasant consequence so the behaviour is repeated to avoid the unpleasant consequences again
Where as
Punishment is receiving an unpleasant consequence for behaviour E.g receiving a detention from a teachers for not bringing in homework should stop that behaviour
What are the two types of reinforcement
Positive and negative reinforcement
What is positive reinforcement
When a reward is given for a behaviour, this behaviour is encouraged/ reinforced, so the behaviour is repeated to gain the same reward
What is positive reinforcement in relation to skinners research
Hungry rat was place in Skinner’s box; every time the rat pressed the lever the rat was rewarded with food.
This behaviour was repeated as the rat was conditioned to press the lever through positive reinforcement to get the same reward
What is negative reinforcement
Negative reinforcement is performing a behaviour to remove an unpleasant consequence so the behaviour is repeated to avoid the unpleasant consequences again
What is negative reinforcement in relation to Skinner’s research
Skinner ran an electrical current across the floor which caused the rat discomfort. The rat would move around until it knocked the lever.
The lever would stop the current ; the rat would repeat this behaviour as it had learned by pressing the lever it would avoid the unpleasant consequence of pain.
What is punishment
receiving an unpleasant consequence for behaviour E.g. receiving a detention from a teacher for not bringing in your homework should stop that behaviour
Outline basic assumption of the humanistic approach (at least 2)
All humans can determine their own behaviour and have free will.
All humans have an innate need for self-actualisation (to reach their potential) and will achieve this provided they have the right environment for personal growth.
What are the three features of humanistic approach
F1 - free will
F2 - self-actualisation
F3 - the self, conditions of worth and congruence
Define free will
Humans are self-determining so our behaviour is due to our choices and we can reject any internal or external influences such as, genes or unconscious motives.
Describe feature one free will
Humanism argues, unlike other approaches that free will is possible.
We have free will to make choices to enable personal change and growth so we are free to choose how we act.
Define self-actualisation
Self-actualisation is the highest level and is not a need we seek because of something we are lacking but for personal growth. We aim to fulfil our potential and this will continue to change throughout our lives
Describe self-actualisation
Humanism believes that all humans have the need to achieve their full potential – to become the best they possibly can be.
Maslow developed the hierarchy of needs. This contains a range a needs that a person requires for survival and growth. The more basic needs have to be met before higher needs can be achieved.
The most basic needs are physiological needs that are required for survival e.g. food, water and sleep
Safety needs include having a home, security of a job and good health
Love and belonging are linked to giving and receiving acceptance and love such as having family and friends
Esteem needs include seeking the respect of others, achievement & self confidence
Self-actualisation is the highest level and is not a need we seek because of something we are lacking but for personal growth. We aim to fulfil our potential and this will continue to change throughout our lives
We can move up and down the hierarchy if needs are lost
Feature three - the self, conditions of worth and congruence introduction
Humanism argues that for a person to achieve personal growth there needs to be a focus on the self. Rogers suggests the concept of the self and the ideal self
What is the actual perceived self
This refers to how we view ourselves in terms of what I am and what I can do.
This self-concept comes from our own experiences of the world and through how other significant people (e.g. parents, peers) view us and how they treat us.
What is the ideal self
This refers to the person we feel that we should be or the person that we want to be.
Define congruence
Congruence occurs when there is match/consistency between your perceived self (how you view yourself) and your ideal self (the person you want to be). If this occurs it enables a person to show personal growth and achieve their goals.
How self vs the ideal self lead to incongruence
When there is a MISMATCH between the perceived and ideal self we are in a STATE OF INCONGRUENCE they are likely to have low self-worth and poorer psychological health.
Rogers would suggest a person should go through counselling to develop a more healthy view of him/herself or a more realistic or achievable ideal self.
Describe the role of conditions of worth and how this can lead to incongruence
If a person has issues of low self-esteem and worthlessness in adulthood these may be a consequence of our early childhood due to conditions of worth. In childhood, parents or significant others place limits on their love (may only show love or approval if specific conditions are met.
E.g I will be proud of you if you get good exam results
I will love you if you go to university
These conditions of worth influence the person in their development as they can believe they can only accept themselves or be happy when they reach these expectations that have been set by others, or in some cases themselves. This can also lead to incongruence.
Counselling can help them deal with these issues as the therapist creates an environment where they can feel unconditional love (unconditional positive regard).
Outline the influence of humanistic psychology on counselling (4-6)
Roger’s Person-Centred Therapy is an IMPORTANT FORM OF MODERN-DAY COUNSELLING. His work has transformed therapy by introducing a variety of techniques. Roger’s referred to the ‘patient’ as a ‘client’ because he saw the individual as an expert on their own condition. Therefore, PCT is NON-DIRECTIVE, and the client is encouraged to EXERT FREE WILL and discover solutions to their own problems.
Roger’s PCT has been praised as a forward-looking therapy as it focuses on present problems rather than dwelling on the past like Psychoanalysis.
The aim of PCT is to increase the person’s feeling of self-worth, reduce incongruence between the self and ideal self and ultimately help them to become a more fully functioning person.
In order for the therapy to be successful, Roger’s emphasised the importance of creating a warm, supportive and non-judgemental atmosphere where the individual can achieve personal growth and congruence. To do this, the therapist must show: genuineness, empathy and unconditional positive regard.
Roger’s PCT skills are practised in the UK and US, not only in clinical settings, but also throughout education, health and social work
Outline the basic assumptions of the cognitive approach (at least 2)
The mind works like a computer in that it has input from the senses, which is processed and then produces an output such as, specific behaviour.
Argues we have schemas that drive our behaviour including what we pay attention to, how we interpret events and what we remember.
What are the features of the cognitive approach
F1 - study of internal mental processes
F2 - the use of theoretical and computer models
F3 - the role of schemas
What is meant by inferences (2)
The process where cognitive psychologists go beyond the immediate evidence to draw logical assumptions about how internal mental processes drive our behaviour (1)
based on observed behaviour, but not directly inferred. (2)
This can be from the use of experimental procedures.
What is meant by a schema (3)
Schemas are another form of internal mental processing. (1)
They are mental representations (collection of ideas) (1)
They are created through unique knowledge and experiences (1)
Held in our LTM and can include beliefs such as stereotypes (1)
Schemas can change through life and become more detailed through experience (1)
The role of schema - why are they beneficial
Schemas are beliefs that are based on past experience which can help us to predict what might happen.
Schemas help us make quick decisions, because they are a useful mental shortcut that prevents us from being overwhelmed by information from the environment.
Why schema may not be beneficial
Schemas can cause biased recall/EWT, as we may recall what we expect to see according to our schema, rather than what we have actually witnessed.
Negative schemas may make an individual vulnerable to depression.
Describe the use of the computer model to explain behaviour
Cognitive psychologists argue that the mind functions like a computer (computer analogy).
The information-processing model applies the idea of the human mind functioning like a computer. E.g. Information may enter the brain but how we respond/act depends upon how we process the information.
What is the three stage process stage explains behaviour
Input -> information processing -> output
What is input
We receive the Information from the environment via our senses e.g.
• sight,
• sound
• Smell .etc.
And it is encoded
What is information processing
The information is now processed (we interpret the event)
We store the information as a memory
What is output
The appropriate behaviour, emotion is performed
or retrieval of information occurs
The use of the theoretical model such as multi-store model of memory
Models can be used to provide testable theories about mental processing and these can be studied
scientifically and inferences made.
Cognitive psychologists take a behaviour and look at the processes that happen ‘behind the scenes”, they will then describe this process in a series of steps.
One important theoretical model is the Multi-Store Model which suggests that memory has separate unitary stores, each with different coding, capacites and durations and that information flows through memory in a linear way.
This theory has been studied scientifically, for example Miller used a controlled lab experiment to investigate the capacity of STM in which he used the digit span technique, adding one digit each time until participants could no longer recall the number.
This experiment has been replicated many times and the findings that participants can recall 5-9 items has been found to be reliable, inferring that the capacity of STM is limited.
Explain the basic assumptions behind social learning theory (at least 2)
SLT suggest learning is through OBSERVING a MODEL and IMITATING a model
That we learn behaviour directly (through being reward or punished ourselves) and indirect/vicariously (learning from seeing someone else rewarded or punished)
What are the 2 features of the learning approach - the social learning theory
F1 - observational learning
F2 - the four meditational processes ARMM
What does observational learning consist of
Identification
Imitation
Vicarious reinforcement
This leads to
Modelling
Define the term identification
Identification is where an individual (the observer) associates (identifies) himself or herself with
a role model due to similarity or status and wants to be like the role model.
Therefore, a person is more likely to imitate the behaviours of these models.
Define the term imitation
Imitation is the term used to describe when an individual observes a behaviour from a role model and copies it.
Define vicarious reinforcement
Vicarious reinforcement: If a person sees a role model rewarded for a particular behaviour then frit increases the chance that the observer will imitate behaviour to receive the same reward. This is indirect reinforcement.
Define modelling
THIS LEADS TO
Modelling: This is the process of imitating the behaviour of a role model. From a role models view, they are precisely showing the observer a specific behaviour to be imitated.
What are the four cognitive processes Bandura states
(The four meditational processes (ARRM)
- Attention
- Retention
- Reproduction
- Motivation
Define attention
learning occurs when they attend to a model’s behaviour, e.g. children must observe what the model is doing or saying in order to reproduce the models behaviour. Our attention
must be captured.
Define retention
To reproduce the modelled behaviour they must store the memory of this behaviour in LTM, allowing the behaviour to be remembered (retrieved).
This is more likely if the information is easy to store, memorable, and especially if the behaviour is observed repeatedly i.e. something they see daily
Define reproduction
Individuals must have the skills and capabilities to be confident they could reproduce the models behaviour, again this is more likely if the behaviour is easy to replicate. The behaviour is also more likely to be repeated if it is simple i.e. easy to do
Define motivation/reinforcements
an individual may be motivated to imitate the behaviour because they have seen someone else rewarded for the behaviour (indirect reinforcement - vicarious reinforcement) or because they identify with the model e.g. similarity or because the model is high status.
Who conducted the bobo doll study
Bandura
What was the aim of Bandura’s bobo doll study
To see whether aggressive behaviour could be learned through observation.
What was the sample of Bandura’s bobo doll study
36 boys and 36 girls (3-5 years old).
What was the procedure of Bandura’s bobo doll study
Children divided into eight groups, six children in each.
In the non-aggressive condition, the children observed the model continued to assemble the toys in a quiet manner ignoring the bobo doll.
In the aggressive condition, the children observed the model and after a minute the model started acting aggressively towards the bobo doll.
The “model” performed new aggressive behaviours not expected of children e.g. hitting it on the head with a mallet, or punching it in the nose repeatedly. Verbal aggression included shouting phrases such as “sock him in the nose.”
What were the findings of Bandura’s bobo doll study
Children in the aggressive condition had significantly higher physical and verbal aggression scores than the non-aggressive or control groups.
70% of children in the non-aggressive or control groups had zero ratings of aggression.
Both genders were more influenced by the male model.
Boys were more aggressive than girls
What was the conclusion of Bandura’s bobo doll study
Observation of behaviour can lead to imitative learning. People are more likely to imitate male aggressive models, as physical aggression is perceived as more of a male appropriate behaviour.
Outline the basic assumptions of the biological approach (at least 2)
All human behaviour is at first biological, the mind lives in the brain.
Physical factors such as our hormones, neuroanatomy, nervous system and the inheritance of genes can all explain our behaviour
Argues that an individual’s genotype and phenotype will determine how we behave
What are the four features of the biological approach
F1 - the influence of genes on our behaviour
F2 - the influence of biologist structures on behaviour
F3 - the influence of neurochemistry on behaviour
F4 - evolution & behaviour
Explain the genetic basis of behaviour
The genetic explanation argues that behavioural characteristics such as intelligence, personality and mental illness are genetically inherited the same way as physical characteristics such as eye colour or height. Therefore, behaviours will run in families.
For example, the genetic explanation would argue that OCD is due to the inheritance of one or many maladaptive (undesirable) genes e.g. SERT.
The genetic explanation would argue the closer the genetic link to someone with OCD, the greater the risk a person would inherit OCD. The genetic probability of sharing a behaviour is measured by concordance rates. The higher the concordance rate found, then the stronger the evidence for a genetic basis of behaviour. This is shown in twin studies where monozygotic (identical) twins have been found to have a concordance (likelihood) of 87% compared to concordance rates of 47% for dizygotic twins (non-identical) for OCD. (Carey and Gottsman, 1981)
Outline the twin study to support the genetic basis of behaviour
The genetic explanation would argue the closer the genetic link to someone with OCD, the greater the risk a person would inherit OCD.
The genetic probability of sharing a behaviour is measured by concordance rates. The higher the concordance rate found, then the stronger the evidence for a genetic basis of behaviour.
This is shown in twin studies where monozygotic (identical) twins have been found to have a concordance (likelihood) of 87% compared to concordance rates of 47% for dizygotic twins (non-identical) for OCD. (Carey and Gottsman, 1981)
Define the term genotype (2)
A genotype is a specific set of genes that an individual has inherited from their biological parents and is unique to them (their genetic make up).
Genotypes can give a predisposition to disorders.
Define the term phenotype (2)
The phenotype of an individual is the product of what happens when the genotype interacts with the environment (combination of genotype and the environment).
This is how our genes are expressed through physical, behaviour and psychological characteristics, they are observable traits or behaviours shown by an individual.
For example, identical twins (same genotype/identical genes) may look slightly different perhaps because one has exercised more or has dyed hair (phenotype) which is due to their environment!
Explain the influence of biological structures on behaviour
A biological structure is an organ, such as the brain or a system, such as the nervous system or endocrine system.
The brain is one biological structure that can influence behaviour. Abnormalities in size, shape or function in certain areas of the brain can lead to certain behaviours.
For example, basal ganglia is responsible for psycho motor functions, hypersensitivity to the bg result in repetitive behaviour
The human behaviour of compulsions by people with OCD
Explain the influence of neurochemistry
A neurotransmitter is a chemical messenger in the brain that passes information from one synapse to the communicate these messages, when there is an imbalance it can cause abnormal behaviour.
An imbalance of the neurotransmitter dopamine has been linked with the development of Schizophrenia and an imbalance of serotonin has been associated with the development of depression, anxiety and OCD.
Explain evolution and behaviour
Charles Darwin created a theory called natural selection. This theory suggests that any genetically determined behaviour that increases an individual’s chances of survival and reproduction will continue to be passed on to future generations (naturally selected) e.g. intelligence and aggression.
This process takes places ‘naturally - so nobody ‘decides what is selected. It happens because the individual who possesses certain beneficial traits will have increased chances
of survival and therefore will be able to pass on the beneficial traits to their offspring (reproductive success).
Evolution can explain a range of behaviours, for example aggression.
Being aggressive will, at some point in our ancestory, have been advantageous in terms of survival and increasing reproduction. Perhaps, because aggression would have increased their chances of gaining resources such as hunting food which would be attractive to a mate, therefore this aggressive behaviour has been naturally selected and passed on.
Research into the genetic basis of behaviour has found that one-third of men have the ‘warrior gene (MAOA) which has been linked to aggressive behaviour
Explanation of cognitive neuroscience (4-6)
Cognitive neuroscience is scientific study of brain/neurological structures, mechanisms, processes, chemistry that are responsible for cognitive/ mental thinkin/ processes
This is a theory that has recently emerged as technology has advanced, enabling psycholorists to use a number of brain imaging techniques, such as TRY and PET scans, to investigate how braln activity might underpin mental processes (memory and mental disorders).
This is achieved by comparing people with a disorder to those without a disorder to identify the physical basis for cogntive processes in the brain.
Cognitive neuroscience believes that computer models are important in understanding how individuals
think.
• Tulving’s research is one example of Cognitive Neuroscience in action. Whilst pts completed tasks requiring the use of their episodic and semantic memory, the use of PET scans lead Tulving to discover that different parts of the LTM are located in different areas of the brain (opposite sides of the pre-frontal cortex).
