approaches Flashcards
Who was Wilhelm Wundt and what did he do?
-In 1873 Wilhelm Wundt published the first book on psychology ‘Principles of Physiological Psychology’
-in 1879 opened the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany.
-He is often considered to be ‘the father of psychology’
- his approach became known as structuralism.
-established psychology as a science by using the scientific method
what is structuralism?
study of the structure of the human mind, by breaking down behaviours into their basic elements,
what are the three components of structuralism?
-Thoughts
-Images
-Sensations
What did Wundt use to investigate the human mind?
introspection
what is introspection?
A systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations
What were the two major assumptions Wundts new scientific approach was based on ?
-All behaviour is seen as being caused (determined)
-If behaviour is determined, then it should be possible to predict how human beings would behave in different conditions (predictability)
The scientific method refers to the use of investigative methods that are…
-Objective (factual)
-systematic (controlled)
-replicable (or standardised procedures)
evaluation of introspection
-Introspection relies primarily on non-observable responses and although participants can report conscious experiences, they are unable to comment on unconscious factors relating to their behaviour.
-Introspection produced data that was subjective (varied greatly from person to person), so it became very difficult to establish general principles.
Behaviourist approach
a way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning.
what did the behaviourist approach reject?
introspection
key assumptions of the behaviourist approach
-We are born as “blank slates”
-All we have at birth is the capacity to learn
-All behaviour is learned from the environment
-Focus of the approach: observable behaviour
the behaviourist approach is only interested in studying behaviour that can be …
observed and measured
classical conditioning
learning by association and refers to the conditioning of reflexes and involves associating a new stimulus with an innate bodily reflex
Who demonstrated classical conditioning?
Pavlov
the formula for classical conditioning
UCS = UCR
Unconditioned stimulus = Unconditioned response
UCS + NS = UCR
Unconditioned stimulus + neutral stimulus = Unconditioned response
CS = CR
Conditioned stimulus = Conditioned response
the formula for classical conditioning (dog and bell example)
UCS = UCR
Food = salivation
UCS + NS = UCR
Food + bell = salivation
CS = CR
Bell = salivation
operant conditioning
A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences.
name the three consequences (operant conditioning)
-Positive reinforcement
-Negative reinforcement
-Punishment.
what is positive reinforcement?
Involves receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed.
what is negative reinforcement?
Occurs when an animal/human avoids something unpleasant.The outcome is a positive experience, so they will do it again.
what was the skinner box experiment?
-showed how negative reinforcement worked
-placed a rat in his box and then subjected it to an unpleasant electric current which caused it some discomfort.
-As the rat moved about the box it would accidentally knock the lever. -electric current would be switched off.
-The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in the box.
-The consequence of escaping the electric current ensured that they would repeat the action again and again.
Evaluation 1- well controlled research (behaviourist approach)
-strength
-its based on well controlled research
-behaviourists focused on the measurement of observable behaviour within highly controlled lab settings
-by breaking down behaviour into basic stimulus-response units, all other possible extraneous variables were removed allowing cause and effect relationships to be established
-e.g. skinner was able to clearly demonstrate how reinforcement influenced an animals behaviour
-suggests that behaviourist experiments have scientific credibility
Evaluation 2- Counterpoint of well controlled research (behaviourist approach)
-weakness
-behaviourists may have oversimplified the learning process
-behaviourists ignored an important influence on learning- that of human thought
-other approaches have drawn attention to the mental processes involved in learning
-suggests that learning is more complex than observable behaviour alone
evaluation 3- real world application ( behaviourist approach)
-strength
-principles of conditioning have been applied to real world behaviours
-operant conditioning has been used in institutions such as prisons and psychiatric wards
-they reward appropriate behaviour with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges
-this increases the value of the behaviourist approach because it has widespread application
evaluation 4- environmental determinism (behaviourist approach)
-limitation
-sees all behaviour as conditioned by past experiences
-skinner said that everything we do is the sum total of our reinforcement history
-this ignores any possible influence that free will may have on behaviour
-this is an extreme position and ignores influence of conscious decision making processes on behaviour
what is social learning theory
A way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement, combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors
what is vicarious reinforcement?
reinforcement which is not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour. This is a key factor is imitation.
what are the 4 mental or mediational processes in learning identified by bandura ?
-attention
-retention
-motor reproduction
-motivation
what is attention?
the extent to which we notice certain behaviours
what is retention?
how well the behaviour is remembered
what is motor reproduction?
the ability of the observer to perform the behaviour
what is motivation?
the will to perform the behaviour, which is often determined by whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished
what is imitation?
copying the behaviour of others.
what is identification?
when an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to like the role model.
what is modelling?
imitating the behaviour of a role model.
Bandura (1961) Bobo doll study
-lab experiment
-Sample: American children, 36 boys and 36 girls aged between 3-6 years old .
-Group 1: 12 girls and 12 boys were shown a model hitting the doll with a hammer and shouting at the doll.
-Group 2: 12 girls and 12 boys were shown a model shown a non-aggressive model.
-Group 3: 12 girls and 12 boys (control group) were not shown a model.
results for the bobo doll study
-The children who had observed the aggressive model (group 1) were more aggressive than the children from the other two groups.
-Group 1 imitated specific aggressive acts that were displayed by the model.
-Boys imitated more physically aggressive acts than girls.
-There was no difference in the verbal aggression between boys and girls.
Negative evaluation of Bandura’s study
-Setting and behaviour of adults was strange/artificial (demand characteristics).
-Bobo dolls are designed to be hit – this may have caused the observed effects (validity).
-Possible long term effects on participants (ethics)
Positive evaluation of Bandura’s study
+Continuity- each child exposed to same environment (control)
+Replication (and subsequent studies)
evaluation 1- cognitive factors ( SLT)
-strength
-recognises importance of cognitive factors in learning
-from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviours are performed and on later occasions this coded info serves as a guide to action
-suggests SLT provides a more comprehensive explanation of human learning due to mediations
evaluation 2- counterpoint to cognitive factors ( SLT)
-weakness
-makes little reference to biological factors on social learning
-Behaviour in Bandura’s research may be a result of mirror neurons in the brain that allow us to empathise with and imitate other people
-suggests that biological influences on social learning were under-emphasised in SLT
evaluation 3- contrived lab studies (SLT)
-weakness
-evidence gathered through lab studies
-there is contrived nature in lab studies where participants may respond to demand characteristics
-purpose of a bobo doll is to strike it so children were behaving in a way that they thought was expected
-suggests that this research may tell us little about how children actually learn aggression
evaluation 4- real world application (SLT)
-strength
-SLT has been applied to a range of real world behaviours
-SLT principles can account for how children learn from others around them and explains how social norms are transmitted through particular societies
-this increases the value of the approach as it can account for real world behaviour
what are the assumptions of the cognitive approach?
-information received from our senses is processed by the brain and that this processing directs how we behave.
-These internal mental processes cannot be observed directly, but we can infer what a person is thinking based on how they act.
what is a schema?
packet of information or cognitive framework that helps us organize and interpret information. They are based on our previous experience.
the role of a schema
-Schema enable us to process information quickly, which prevents us from being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli. They can be used in stereotyping.
-schema may distort our interpretation of sensory information, leading to perceptual errors. Highly concerning during police interviews.
what is cognitive neuroscience?
scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes
what does neuroscience aim to find?
how brain structures influence the way we process information and map mental cognitive functions to specific areas of the brain.
scanning techniques
-FMRI and PET scans are used to systematically observe and describe the neurological basis of mental processes.
-FMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) scans brain activity when a person is performing a task. It allows researchers to see which regions of the brain are rich in oxygen and are therefore active.
-A PET Scan (positron emission tomography) allows a researcher to see activity – radioactive glucose is ingested and can be detected in active areas of the brain.
evaluation 1- scientific methods (the cognitive approach)
-strength
-uses objective, scientific research
-they use lab studies to produce reliable, objective data
-emergence of cognitive neuroscience has enabled the two fields of biology and cognitive psychology to come together to enhance the scientific basis
-this means that studies of the mind have a scientific basis
evaluation 2- counterpoint of scientific methods (cognitive approach)
-cognitive psych relies on inference of mental processes than direct observation of behaviour
-so can be duffer from being too abstract and theoretical in nature
-also research studies of mental processes use artificial stimuli that may not represent everyday experience
-therefore research on cognitive processes may lack external validity
evaluation 3- real world application (cognitive approach )
-strength
-it has practical application
-it is the dominant approach in psychology today and is applied to a range of practical and theoretical contexts
-has its contribution in the field of AI and development of robots which may revolutionise how we live in the future
-its principles have also been applied to treatment of depression and improved the reliability of eyewitness testimony
-this supports the value of the cognitive approach
evaluation 4- machine reductionism (cognitive approach)
-weakness
-approach is based on machine reductionism
-there are similarities between human minds and operation of thinking machines like outputs, inputs, storage systems etc
-however, it ignores the influence of human emotion and motivation on the cognitive system
-e.g. research has found that human memory may be affected by emotional factors, such as influence of anxiety on eyewitness
-suggests machine reductionism may weaken validity of cognitive approach
assumptions of the psychodynamic view
-all behaviour can be explained in terms of the inner conflicts of the mind.
-highlights the role of the unconscious mind, the structure of personality, and the influence that childhood experiences have on later life.
- unconscious mind determines most of our behavior and that we are motivated by unconscious emotional drives.
name the three parts our personality is composed of
-id
-ego
-super ego
what is the id?
- it is the biological part (instincts and drives) of the personality.
-It is present at birth.
-The Id is motivated by the pleasure principle; it demands instant gratification of its needs.
what is the ego?
-develops from 1 – 3 years.
-It is motivated by the reality principle. It mediates the conflicts between the ID and superego.
-It uses defense mechanisms to achieve this.
what is the superego?
-develops from 3 – 5 years.
-It is motivated by the morality principle.
-It punishes the ego with guilt for “wrongdoing.”
The mind is divided into three parts:
-The conscious
-The preconscious
-The unconscious
elaborate the conscious part
this is the part we are aware of and can access without any effort. It contains part of the ego.
elaborate the preconscious part
this is a part of the mind that we cannot access without effort. It contains the ego and some of the superego.
elaborate the unconscious part
this part of the mind cannot be accessed without the help of a trained psychoanalyst. It contains the superego and the Id.
what are the defence mechanisms?
-repression
-displacement
-denial
what is repression?
used by the ego to keep disturbing memories out of the conscious mind and in the unconscious mind where they cannot be accessed, e.g., sexual or aggressive urges or painful childhood memories.
what is displacement?
An impulse may be redirected from its original target onto a more acceptable one, e.g., being angry with your father and shouting at your little sister.
what is denial?
the existence of unpleasant internal or external realities is denied and kept out of conscious awareness, e.g., having lost your job, and yet you go to work every day.
name the psychosexual stages
-oral
-anal
-phallic
-latency
-genital
what is the source of pleasure for the oral stage?
Mouth – sucking, swallowing, etc
what are the consequences of unresolved conflict (oral stage) ?
If forceful feeding, deprivation, or early weaning occur, then fixation could lead to oral activities (e.g., smoking), dependency, and aggression.
what is the source of pleasure for the anal stage?
The anus – withholding or expelling faeces.
what are the consequences of unresolved conflict (anal stage)?
If toilet training is too harsh or too lax, then fixation could lead to obsessiveness, tidiness, meanness, or to untidiness and generosity.
what is the source of pleasure for the phallic stage?
The penis or clitoris – masturbation.
what are the consequences of unresolved conflict (phallic stage)?
If an abnormal family set-up leads to an unusual relationship with the mother/father, then fixation could lead to Vanity, self-obsession, sexual anxiety, inadequacy, Inferiority, envy,
what is source of pleasure for the latency stage?
Sexual drives are repressed.
what is source of pleasure of the genital stage?
The genitals. The adult derives pleasure from masturbation and sexual intercourse.
what are the consequences of unresolved conflict (genital stage)?
difficulty forming heterosexual relationships
what is the oedipus complex?
The Oedipus complex occurs during the Phallic stage of psychosexual development. It involves a boy, aged between 3 and 6, becoming unconsciously sexually attached to his mother, and hostile towards his father (who he views as a rival).
what is the electra complex?
It involves a girl, aged between 3 and 6, becoming subconsciously sexually attached to her father and increasingly hostile toward her mother.
evaluation 1- real world application ( psychodynamic approach)
-strength
-it introduced psychotherapy
-Freud brought to the world a new form of therapy= psychoanalysis
-psychanalysis claims to help clients by bringing their repressed emotions into their conscious mind so they can be dealt with
-psychoanalysis is also the forerunner to many modern day talking therapies such as counselling
-shows the value of the psychodynamic approach in creating a new approach to treatment
evaluation 2- counterpoint of real world application ( psychodynamic approach)
-psychoanalysis is regarded as harmful for people experiencing more serious mental disorders like schizophrenia
-symptoms of schizophrenia such as delusional thinking means they have lost grip of reality and cannot articulate their thoughts in the way required by psychoanalysis
-suggests Freudian therapy may not apply to all mental disorders
evaluation 3- explanatory power ( psychodynamic approach)
-strength
-has an ability to explain human behaviour
-psychodynamic approach remained key force in psych for the first half of 20th century
-the approach is significant in drawing attention connections between experiences in childhood, our relationship with parents and our later development
-suggests psychodynamic approach had a positive impact on psychology
evaluation 4- untestable concepts ( psychodynamic approach)
-limitation
-a lot of it is untestable
-Popper argued that that psychodynamic approach does not meet the scientific criterion of falsification
-it is not open for empirical testing and many of Freud’s concepts are said to be at un unconscious level so cant be tested
-also his ideas were based on studies of individuals like little Hans
-suggests that Freud’s theory was pseudoscientific
what does the humanistic approach emphasise
the importance of subjective experience and each person’s capacity for self determination
what is free will
notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by internal biological or external forces
what is self actualisation
desire to grow psychologically and fulfil one’s full potential- becoming what you are capable of
what is the Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
a five levelled hierarchical sequence in which basic psychological needs must be satisfied before higher psychological needs ( such as self esteem and self actualisation) can be achieved
state the hierarchical sequence (bottom to top) of the hierarchy of needs
-physiological needs
-safety and security
-love and belongingness
- self esteem
-self actualisation
what is congruence
aim of Rogerian therapy, when the self concept and ideal self are seen to broadly match
Rogers believes that low self esteem has its roots in childhood and can be explained by a lack of …
unconditional positive regard
what is meant by conditions of worth
-when a parent places limits on their love of their children
- e.g. “ I will only love you if…”
what can conditions of worth cause
-stored up psychological problems for that child in the future
evaluation 1- not reductionist ( humanistic approach)
-strength
-rejects attempts to break behaviour into smaller components
-human psychologists advocate holism, the idea that subjective experience can only be understood by considering the whole person
-suggests that this approach has more validity as it considers meaningful human behaviour within its real world context
evaluation 2- counterpoint of not reductionist ( humanistic approach)
-reductionist approaches may be more scientific
-one issue with humanistic approach is that there’s only a few concepts that can be broken down to single variables and measured
-means humanistic approach is short on empirical evidence to support its claims
evaluation 3- positive approach ( humanistic approach)
-strength
-its an optimistic approach
-it has been praised for bringing the person back into psychology and promoting a positive image of the human condition
-humanistic psychologists see all people as basically good, free to work towards the achievement of their potential and in control of their lives
-suggests that humanistic approach offers an optimistic alternative to other approaches
evaluation 4- cultural bias ( humanistic approach)
-weakness
-may be culture biased
-Individual freedom and personal growth are rather associated with countries that have an individualistic tendencies
-countries with collectivist tendencies emphasise more the needs of the group rather than self
-therefore this approach may not apply universally
what are the basic assumptions of the biological approach
-Everything psychological is at first biological
-Focusses on biological structures and processes within the body i.e. genes, neurochemistry and the nervous system.
-The mind lives in the brain
Methods of investigating the genetic basis of behaviour
-twin studies
-family studies
-adoption studies
-selective breeding
what are genes
-make up chromosomes and consist of DNA which codes for physical and psychological features
what is a genotype
actual genetic make up
what is a phenotype
characteristics of an individual determined by both genes and the environment
what is evolution
changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations
what is natural selection
any genetically determined behaviour that enhances an individual’s survival and reproduction will continue in future generations
evaluation 1- real world application (biological approach)
-strength
-it has real world applications
-biological approach has promoted the treatment of clinical depression using antidepressant drugs that increase serotonin levels at synapses in the brain
-those drugs have been associated with the reduction of depressive symptoms
-this means that people with depression may be able to manage their condition better rather than staying at the hospital
evaluation 2- counterpoint of real world application (biological approach)
-antidepressants don’t work for everyone
-Cipriani compared 21 antidepressants and found wide variations in their effectiveness
-researchers concluded that effects of antidepressants were ‘mainly modest’
-this challenges the approach as it suggests that brain chemistry alone may not account for all cases of, e.g, depression
evaluation 3- scientific methods (biological approach)
-strength
-it uses scientific methods of investigation
-biological approach uses a range of precise and objective methods such as scanning techniques, e.g. fMRIs and EEGs
-with advanced tech, it is possible to accurately measure physiological and neural processes
-means the biological approach is based on objective and reliable data
evaluation 4- biological determinism (biological approach)
-limitation
-it is deterministic
-it sees human behaviour as governed by internal,genetic causes
-however even identical twins who share the same genes may not look the same or think the same
-also there’s arguments such as ‘could a violent criminal excuse their actions by claiming their behaviour was controlled by a crime gene?
-suggests that the biological view is too simplistic and ignores effects of the environment
