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A Level Psychology > Approaches > Flashcards

Approaches Flashcards

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1
Q

Define psychology

A
  • the scientific study of the mind and behaviour
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2
Q

Define science

A
  • the pursuit and application of knowledge and understanding of the natural and social world following a systematic methodology based on evidence
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3
Q

Which philosophers have contributed to the emergence of psychology

A
  • Rena Descartes
  • John Locke
  • Charles Darwin
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4
Q

Who is Wilhem Wundt

A
  • “father of psychology”
  • first person to call himself a psychologist
  • ideas stemmed from philosophical roots
  • opened first experimental psychological lab which helped shape psychology as a science
  • wanted to focus on the psychological processes of perception and structuralism
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5
Q

Give details about the lab opened by Wilhem Wundt

A
  • opened in 1879
  • Leipzig, Germany
  • designated to aid the scientific study of psychological inquiry using controlled conditions that could facilitate the replication of results
  • Wundt devised introspection as a way of studying internal mental events
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6
Q

What is introspection

A
  • the first systematic and experimental attempt to study the mind/mental processes by breaking down conscious awareness into basic structures of reflections, thoughts, images and sensations
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7
Q

What is the psychological process of structuralism

A
  • theory of consciousness developed by Wundt
  • involves use of introspection, self reports of sensations/views/feelings/emotions
  • he wanted to document and describe the structure of human consciousness (introspection)
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8
Q

How was structuralism tested

A
  • involved Wundt and his workers recording their conscious thoughts and breaking them down into their constituent parts
  • he wanted to investigate psychology the same as traditional sciences
  • used scientific methods to investigate introspection
  • paved way for psychology to be seen as a science and develop cognitive psychology
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9
Q

How was introspection tested

A
  • strictly controlled conditions in lab using same stimuli, same reaction times and same instructions
  • individuals focused on present experiences
  • involves person saying everything in their mind while doing activity
  • must keep talking even if ideas are not clear
  • must not hesitate => can use fragmented sentences and do not have to justify thoughts
  • made research into introspection reliable so it could be replicated
  • made psychology different from philosophical roots
  • later realised mental processes difficult to study using introspection and encouraged a search for alternative methods
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10
Q

Who questioned the emergence of psychology as a science

A
  • Watson (1913)
  • Skinner (1953)
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11
Q

How did Watson (1913) question the emergence of psychology as a science

A
  • argued process of introspection produced subject data
  • varied person to person
  • made it difficult to establish general principles
  • proposed a truly scientific psych should restrict itself only to studying phenomena that could be observed and measured
  • thus behaviourist approach was born
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12
Q

How did Skinner (1953) question the emergence of psychology as a science

A
  • brought methods of natural sciences into psych
  • behaviour approach => controlled lab experiments
  • following cognitive revolution, study of mental processes seen as scientific through inferences
  • biological approach also makes use of experimental data => researchers take advantage of recent advances in tech to investigate physiological processes as they happen
  • even though the scientific method is still to be fully embedded in psych, it has come a long way
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13
Q

What is the timeline of psychology emerging as its own subject

A
  • 17-19th century, psychology is a branch of philosophy known as experimental philosophy
  • 1879, Wundt opens lab
  • 1900s, Freud introduced psychodynamic approach
  • 1913, Watson and Skinner establish behaviourist approach
  • 1950s, Rogers and Maslow establish humanistic approach
  • 1960s, cognitive approach reintroduced, SLT proposed by Bandura
  • 1980s, biological approach
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14
Q

What are positive evaluation points for introspection

A
  • helped develop other approached in psych (behaviourism/cognitive), very useful phenomena used in psych that based formed basis of other approaches
  • scientific sharing same qualities as traditional sciences such as making hypotheses, high level of control of variables as conducted in lab
  • causality can be established allowing future behaviour to be predicted
  • still used today in areas of therapy showing application to contemporary therapy used in modern society
  • Wundt supports reductionism, consciousness could be broken down to basic elements without sacrificing any of the properties of the whole
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15
Q

What are negative evaluation points for introspection

A
  • Watson (1913) criticised introspection, it produces subjective data varying from individual to individual meaning it is not objective nor reliable
  • not scientific or accurate, Wilson claims psychologists have little knowledge about some behaviour that may exist outside of conscious awareness
  • fails to explain how the mind works and the processes involved in thinking about a particular topic, psychologists cannot see how thoughts are generated so cannot be properly observed
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16
Q

What are the different approaches

A
  • behaviourist approach
  • learning approach
  • cognitive approach
  • biological approach
  • psychodynamic approach
  • humanistic approach
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17
Q

How is the behaviourist approach split

A
  • classical conditioning
  • operant conditioning
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18
Q

What are key assumptions of the behaviourist approach

A
  • concerned with observable behaviour that can be objectively and scientifically measured
  • all behaviour is learned from environment and can be reduced to stimulus-response association
  • little difference between learning that takes place in humans and non human animals allowing research to be carried out on animals as well as humans
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19
Q

What is classical conditioning

A
  • all behaviour is learnt rather than being innate or inherited
  • learning through association
  • stimulus produces same response as another stimulus because they have been consistently presented at the same time
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20
Q

What are examples of classical conditioning

A
  • Pavlov (1927) => salivating dogs
  • Watson and Rayner (1928) => little Albert
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21
Q

What was Pavlov (1927)

A
  • investigated salivating reflex in dogs
  • noticed dogs would not only salivate when food was placed in their mouths but also when certain stimuli appeared
  • e.g. dog bowl or person who usually feeds them
  • he explored how dogs had learnt that these stimuli meant food was on the way
  • decided to see if he could teach dogs to salivate when he rang a bell
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22
Q

What happened before conditioning for Pavlov (1927)

A
  • food was unconditioned stimulus producing reflex of salivating which is an unconditioned response
  • bell was a neutral stimulus producing no conditioned response
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23
Q

What happened during conditioning for Pavlov (1927)

A
  • the unconditioned stimulus of food was repeatedly paired with the neutral stimulus of the bell
  • eventually the dog associated the bell with food
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24
Q

What happened after conditioning for Pavlov (1927)

A
  • bell was a conditioned stimulus producing salivating in the dogs as a conditioned response
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25
Q

What is an unconditioned stimulus in classical conditioning

A
  • any stimulus that elicits a natural response and does not have to be learned
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26
Q

What is an unconditioned response in classical conditioning

A
  • any natural response that does not require learning
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27
Q

What is an neutral stimulus in classical conditioning

A
  • any stimulus that does not elicit a response
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28
Q

What is an conditioned stimulus in classical conditioning

A
  • a stimulus which was previously neutral but was constantly paired with an unconditioned stimulus
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29
Q

What is an conditioned response in classical conditioning

A
  • when an unconditioned response is paired with a neutral response and then the neutral stimulus elicits a conditioned response
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30
Q

What are positive evaluation points for classical conditioning

A
  • research support in being able to explain development of learning and phobias, evidence comes from Little Albert by Watson and Rayner => successful in explaining how learning can occur in animals and young children
  • Pavlov’s research has helped apply classical conditioning to treatments of psychological disorders, e.g. flooding and SD which are based on components of classical conditioning
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31
Q

What are negative evaluation points for classical conditioning

A
  • validity
  • generalisation
  • Menzies
  • deterministic
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32
Q

How is validity a negative evaluation point for classical conditioning

A
  • must be cautious when using findings from Little Albert and Pavlov’s study
  • conducted in lab setting
  • different results may be gained from different setting
  • lack ecological validity
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33
Q

How is generalisation a negative evaluation point for classical conditioning

A
  • may not be strong in explaining how adults learn new behaviours
  • limited to only explaining learning in young children and animals as shown in Watson and Rayner’s and Pavlov’s research
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34
Q

How is Menzies a negative evaluation point for classical conditioning

A
  • criticises behavioural model
  • studies people with hydrophobia
  • found only 2% of sample encouraged negative experience with water
  • therefore 98% of sample had phobia of water but never had a negative experience involving water
  • means they had not learnt to be frightened of water
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35
Q

How is determinism a negative evaluation point for classical conditioning

A
  • classical conditioning viewed as deterministic as it ignores role of free will in people’s behavioural responses
  • anticipates an individual will respond to a conditioned stimulus with no variation
  • people are not passive states and they do have some control over how they might respond to an association between two stimuli
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36
Q

What is operant conditioning

A
  • organisms spontaneously produce different behaviours
  • behaviours produce consequences for organism
  • some consequences may be positive and some negative
  • if consequence of behaviour is positive then likely behaviour is repeated
  • if consequence of behaviour is negative then likely behaviour is not repeated
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37
Q

How is operant conditioning different to classical conditioning

A
  • responses are reinforced in operant conditioning but not in classical conditioning
  • classical conditioning explains acquisition of a response while operant explains the maintenance of a response
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38
Q

What is reinforcement

A
  • something in the environment that strengthens a particular behaviour
  • two types: positive and negative
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39
Q

What is positive reinforcement

A
  • occurs when behaviour produces a consequence that is satisfying or pleasant for the organism
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40
Q

What is negative reinforcement

A
  • occurs when behaviour removes something aversive and returns the organism to the pre aversive state
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41
Q

What is primary and secondary reinforcement

A
  • primary reinforcement is reinforcement meeting natural needs such as food to take away hunger or water to take away thirst
  • secondary reinforcement is reinforcement meeting all needs such as money
  • types of positive reinforcement
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42
Q

What is punishment

A
  • occurs when a behaviour leads to an unpleasant consequence
  • decreases likelihood that the behaviour will occur again
  • two types: positive and negative punishment
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43
Q

What is positive punishment

A
  • when something unpleasant is added to a person’s life that was not there before
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44
Q

What is negative punishment

A
  • when something pleasant is removed from a person’s life
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45
Q

Who investigated operant conditioning

A
  • Skinner (1953)
  • conducted a study on rats in a decide called the Skinner Box
  • Skinner Box was a cage which has loud speakers, lights, a level, a door and a floor which could be electrified
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46
Q

What happened in Skinner (1953)

A
  • one hungry rat at a time placed in Skinner box and allowed to freely run around
  • rat might accidentally press lever and be rewarded by a food pellet which would drop into the Skinner box (positive reinforcement)
  • rat then continues to press level in order to receive a food pellet in future, as rat soon learned pressing lever led to reward
  • rat could also learn pressing lever could avoid something unpleasant
  • by pressing levers rat could avoid receiving electric shock (negative reinforcement)
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47
Q

What are schedules of reinforcement

A
  • means there are different methods of reinforcement that might occur, e.g.
  • continuous reinforcement => every time rat presses lever they always receive food pellet
  • fixed interval => the rat pressed the lever and only receives a food pellet during a fixed interval only
  • fixed ratio => the rat must press the lever for a fixed number of times and then it receives the pellet
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48
Q

What are positive evaluation points for operant conditioning

A
  • Paul and Lentz
  • experimental method
  • nature/nurture
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49
Q

How is Paul and Lentz a positive evaluation point for operant conditioning

A
  • practical applications
  • token economy used in institutions as a form of behaviour modification
  • token economies work by rewarding appropriate behaviour with tokens which can be exchanged for privileges
  • research by Paul and Lentz used a token economy to treat patients with SZ
  • found their behaviour became more appropriate
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50
Q

How is experimental method a positive evaluation point for operant conditioning

A
  • Skinner box relied on experimental method
  • highly controlled conditions to discover relationship between variables
  • cause and effect relationship could be established
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51
Q

How is nature/nurture a positive evaluation point for operant conditioning

A
  • nurture side
  • states learning occurs due to environmental factors and external stimuli rather than biology
  • therefore by manipulating factors in the environment, this can have an effect on learning and behaviour and is supported by nurture
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52
Q

What are negative evaluation points for operant conditioning

A
  • determinism
  • ethics
  • biological approach
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53
Q

How is determinism a negative evaluation point for operant conditioning

A
  • Skinner ignores concept of free will
  • suggests past experiences will affect future behaviour
  • people/animals have no control over their actions or the behaviours they show
  • deterministic view which does not account for free will
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54
Q

How is ethics a negative evaluation point for operant conditioning

A
  • rats and pigeons often placed in Skinner box in stressful and aversive conditions
  • could have a negative effect on the psychological and physical health of the animals
  • issue of generalising results from animals to humans
  • animals are very physiologically different to humans so results may not be applicable to humans
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55
Q

How is biological approach a negative evaluation point for operant conditioning

A
  • ignores biological approach
  • biological approach would argue against behaviour approach
  • would state behaviour cannot be learnt but instead it heavily influenced by the role of genes/hormones/biochemical and neural mechanisms
  • therefore other approaches must be considered when examining the influences upon behaviour
  • operant conditioning cannot explain all behaviour, e.g. do people learn to be aggressive
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56
Q

What are positive evaluation points for the behaviourist approach

A
  • scientific
  • principles
  • real life applications
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57
Q

How is scientific a positive evaluation point for the behaviourist approach

A
  • behaviourism was able to bring language and methods of natural sciences in psych
  • done by focussing on the measurement of observable behaviour within highly controlled lab settings
  • by focussing on importance of scientific processes (objectivity, replications), behaviourism was influential in the development of psych as a scientific discipline
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58
Q

How is principles a positive evaluation point for the behaviourist approach

A
  • behaviourist approach developed laws and principles
  • enabled psychologists to predict and control behaviour
  • however, it raises ethical concerns
  • the approach could be used to control people against their wishes
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59
Q

How are practical applications a positive evaluation point for the behaviourist approach

A
  • principles of conditioning have been applied to a broad range of real world behaviours and problems
  • e.g. SD and flooding from classical conditioning for treating psychological disorders and phobias
  • e.g. token economy from operant conditioning for improving behaviours of SZ patients
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60
Q

What are negative evaluation points for the behaviourist approach

A
  • mechanistic
  • reductionist
  • deterministic
  • ethics
  • generalisation
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61
Q

How is mechanistic a negative evaluation point for the behaviourist approach

A
  • from a behaviourist perspective, animals and humans are seen as passive and machine like responders to the environment
  • can learn new behaviours unquestionably and have little conscious thought
  • minimises free will
  • other approaches (cognitive) emphasise importance of mental events during learning
  • therefore behavioural approach may apply less to humans than animal behaviour
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62
Q

How is reductionist a negative evaluation point for the behaviourist approach

A
  • environmentally reductionist
  • focuses on a lower level of explanation than other approaches
  • stimulus-response associations lack meaning when attempting to explain complex human behaviours
  • e.g. attachment
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63
Q

How is deterministic a negative evaluation point for the behaviourist approach

A
  • environmentally deterministic
  • sees all behaviour as determined by past experiences that have been conditioned
  • Skinner suggested everything we do is the suit total of our reinforcement history
  • ignores idea of free will which may also influence behaviour
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64
Q

How is ethics a negative evaluation point for the behaviourist approach

A
  • although experimental procedures enabled behaviourists to maintain a high degree of control over subjects, manny critics questioned ethics of conducting such investigation
  • animals involved were exposed to stressful and aversive conditions
  • may have affected how they reacted to the experimental situation
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65
Q

How is generalisation a negative evaluation point for the behaviourist approach

A
  • uses non human animals for research
  • critics claim this tells us little about human behaviour because humans have cognitive factors and emotional states that influence their behaviour
  • means findings cannot be extrapolated and applied to humans
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66
Q

What is the social learning theory

A
  • new patterns of behaviour can be acquired/learnt though observing the behaviour of others
  • during learning, people perform behaviours and observe different consequences
  • e.g. punishment or reinforcement
  • behaviour is learnt from the environment and also considers cognitive processes
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67
Q

What are the assumptions of social learning theory

A
  • behaviour is learned through experience
  • specifically through observation and imitation within a social context
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68
Q

Who proposed social learning theory

A
  • Bandura (1977)
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69
Q

What were the points proposed by Bandura (1977) for SLT

A
  • modelling
  • imitation
  • identification
  • vicarious reinforcement
  • meditational processes
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70
Q

What is modelling in SLT

A
  • social learning requires a person to model or carry out the behaviour
  • allows observer to learn the behaviour
  • model can be live (parent, teacher, peer) or symbolic (TV character)
  • models provide examples of behaviour which can be learned by imitation
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71
Q

What is imitation in SLT

A
  • children learn behaviours via imitation
  • modelled by significant others
  • tends to be faster than classical or operant conditioning
  • key characteristics of successful imitation include
    => characteristics of the model (age, gender)
    => the observers perceived ability to perform the behaviour shown
    => the observed consequence of behaviour (positive or negative)
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72
Q

What is identification in SLT

A
  • extent to which the observer relates to the model // feels they are similar to them
  • so they could experience same outcomes as model
  • person would aim to be like the models as much as they could
  • children likely to identify with model of same sex as themselves in order for social learning to be effective
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73
Q

What is vicarious reinforcement in SLT

A
  • individuals learn by observing the behaviour of others and the reward/punishment they receive
  • people do not need to experience rewards/punishments directly to learn
  • may learn behaviours but not perform because they have learnt the behaviour leads to punishment if displayed
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74
Q

What are mediational processes in SLT

A
  • social learning places importance on internal cognitive mediational processes
  • observer must form a mental representation of behaviour displayed by model and likely consequences of behaviour in terms of expectancies
  • observer might display learned behaviour, provided there is the expectation that positive consequences are more likely to occur than negative
  • 4 points
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75
Q

What are the different points of mediational processes in SLT

A
  • attention => observer must pay attention and notice the behaviour of the mode
  • retention => observer must remember behaviour of model
  • motor reproduction => observer must be able to perform the behaviour
  • motivation => observer must be willing to perform the behaviour in light of rewards
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76
Q

Who carried out research into SLT

A
  • Bandura (1961)
  • BOBO doll experiment
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77
Q

What was the sample for Bandura (1961) and how were they split into groups

A
  • 72 children ages 3-7
  • 36 boys 36 girls
  • 3 groups
    => model behaving aggressively towards BOBO doll
    => model not behaving aggressively
    => control group where there was no model
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78
Q

What was the procedure for Bandura (1961) into SLT

A
  • children split into groups and watched video of model unless in control group
  • aggressive model displayed distinctive aggressive acts towards doll => strike with mallet and verbal aggression “POW”
  • children then taken to a room with toys one by one but told they cannot play to induce mild frustration
  • children then taken to a room one by one with toys including a BOBO doll (mallet, dart gun and other non aggressive toys as well) and were told they could play => observed for 20 minutes
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79
Q

What were the findings for Bandura (1961) into SLT

A
  • children who observed aggressive model reproduced same behaviour towards BOBO doll
  • children who observed non aggressive model showed no aggression to BOBO doll
  • 33% of aggressive group repeated verbal aggression heard “POW”
  • 0% of child in non aggressive group displayed verbal aggression
  • in a follow up study, children observed a model being rewarded for aggressive behaviour
    => increased likelihood children are aggressive (vicarious reinforcement)
  • boys more likely to be aggressive than girls, and imitation of aggression highest when model was same gender
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80
Q

What was the conclusion for Bandura (1961) into SLT

A
  • aggression can be learned through social learning such as meditational processes, observation, modelling, identification and vicarious reinforcement
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81
Q

What are positive evaluation points for SLT

A
  • Akers (1998)
  • Fox (2009)
  • reciprocal determinism
  • comprehensive
82
Q

What are negative evaluation points for SLT

A
  • causality
  • biological approach
  • demand characteristics
  • inferences
  • abstract notions
83
Q

How is Akers (1998) a positive evaluation point for SLT

A
  • found criminals engage in more criminal behaviour when exposed to model they can identify with
  • e.g. same gender/age
  • if model receives positive outcome for committing crime, this increases likelihood observer will also commit crime
84
Q

How is Fox (2009) a positive evaluation point for SLT

A
  • more effective when model is similar to observer
  • if observer is similar to model, makes it easier for observer to visualise themselves in place of model
  • Fox found evidence suggesting when observer played computer game that had a similar looking model, they were more likely to engage in same behaviours
  • therefore SLT seems to be effective especially when model is similar
85
Q

How is reciprocal determinism a positive evaluation point for SLT

A
  • less determinist than behavioural approach
  • Bandura emphasised reciprocal determinism
    => we are not merely influenced by external environment but we also exert influence upon it through behaviours we choose to perform
  • element of choice suggests there is some free will
  • thus a better explanation of behaviour than the behavioural approach
86
Q

How is comprehensive a positive evaluation point for SLT

A
  • SLT gives a more comprehensive view of learning than behavioural approach
  • recognises importance of behavioural and cognitive factors when examining how people learn new behaviours
87
Q

How is causality a negative evaluation point for SLT

A
  • SLT does not take into account cause and effect
  • e.g. research found increases associations with peers increases likelihood of delinquencies
  • however cannot assume delinquency is caused by SLT alone
  • other factors could cause => deviant and poor attitudes
  • Siegel and McCormick (2006) found young people who have deviant attitudes tend to seek out similar peers accounting for delinquency behaviour
88
Q

How is biological approach a negative evaluation point for SLT

A
  • SLT ignores other influences on behaviour
  • e.g. biological or genetic factors
  • e.g. Bandura found boys were more affressive than girls regardless of experimental situation
  • may be due to testosterone
89
Q

How is demand characteristics a negative evaluation point for SLT

A
  • many of Bandura’s idea were developed through observation of young children’s behaviour in lab setting
  • lab studies often criticised as participants know they are in a study so are more likely to show demand characteristics
  • it has been suggested the children behaved in a way they thought to by being aggressive to the BOBO doll
  • thus research lacks ecological validity as it tells us little on how children learn aggressive in everyday life
90
Q

What is the cognitive approach

A
  • argues that internal mental processes can be studied scientifically
  • e.g. memory, perception and thinking
91
Q

What are key assumptions of the cognitive approach

A
  • the role of models
  • the role of schemas
  • cognitive neuroscience
92
Q

What is the role of models as an assumption of the cognitive approach

A
  • making inferences
  • going beyond immediate evidence to make assumptions about mental processes than cannot be observed
  • two types of models
    => theoretical models and computer models
93
Q

What are theoretical models in the cognitive approach

A
  • simplified representations based on current research evidence
  • often pictorial
  • represented by boxes and arrows indicating cause and effect relationship
  • e.g. information processing approach
    => suggests information flows through cognitive system in sequence of stages
    => includes input, storage and retrieval, e.g. multi store model of memory
94
Q

What are computer models in the cognitive approach

A
  • the mind is compared to a computer
  • similarities in the way information is processed between thw two
  • central processing unit => brain
  • coding => turning information into accessible format
  • stores => hold information
95
Q

What is the role of schemas as an assumption of the cognitive approach

A
  • mental representations of experience/knowledge/understanding
  • help organise/interpret information
  • help predict what will happen based on experience
  • enables us to process vast amounts of information fast
  • prevents becoming overwhelmed by stimuli
96
Q

What is the role of schemas as an assumption of the cognitive approach (negatives)

A
  • can distort interpretation of sensory information
  • leads to perceptual errors / inaccurate memories
  • cause bias recall
  • negative / faulty schema = bad mental health
97
Q

Who conducted research into the role of schemas

A
  • Bartlett (1932)
98
Q

What did Bartlett (1932) investigate for the role of schema

A
  • lab study
  • English participants asked to read Native American folk tale
  • unfamiliar and strange story as it came from different culture
  • participants had to read the story and then recall after different lengths of time
99
Q

What were the findings of Bartlett (1932) into the role of schemas

A
  • all English participants changes story to fit their schema
  • details became more English containing elements of English culture
  • details of ghosts left out
  • order was changed to be more logical
  • as more time passed between recalling, less information was remembered
100
Q

What was the conclusion of Bartlett (1932) into the role of schemas

A
  • people use their own schemas to help them interpret and remember information
  • dependent upon culture to an extent
101
Q

What is cognitive neuroscience as an assumption of the cognitive approach

A
  • scientific study of influence of brain on mental processes
    => neurobiological structures, mechanisms, processes and chemistry
  • practical applications
    => brain imaging; PET and fMRI used to locate different types of memory to different areas
    => episodic = hippocampus
    => semantic = temporal lobe
    => procedural => cerebellum
  • led to more effective treatments for memory disorder
102
Q

Who has carried out research into cognitive neuroscience

A
  • Maguire (2000)
  • a study of taxi drivers’ brains
103
Q

What was the aim of Maguire (2000)

A
  • wanted to investigate if brain anatomy was predetermines or susceptible to plastic changes in response to environmental stimulation
  • taxi drivers undergo extensive training making an ideal group for the study of spatial navigation
  • aim was to examine whether structural changes could be detected in the brain of people with extensive experience of spatial navigation
104
Q

What was the procedure of Maguire (2000)

A
  • 32 healthy males, average age of 44
  • split into 2 groups
  • one group were 16 licensed London taxi drivers => worked for at least 18 months
  • second group were 16 males in a control group who had never driven taxis
  • MRI scans of brain were taken and analysed
105
Q

What were the findings of Maguire (2000)

A
  • MRI showed right posterior hippocampus in brain of taxi drivers was larger than control group
    => related to length of taxi driver’s time in job
  • positive correlation between amount of time spent as taxi driver and volume in right posterior hippocampus
    => responsible for storing visual representations of environment
    => links to fact taxi drivers have to navigate around streets of London
106
Q

What was the conclusion of Maguire (2000)

A
  • shows importance of MRI scans and how certain parts of brain are responsible for navigation
  • can help people with poor navigational skills and why they may have them and even brain damaged patients
107
Q

What are positive evaluation points of the cognitive approach

A
  • scientific
  • practical applications
  • determinism
  • negative schema
108
Q

How is scientific a positive evaluation point for the cognitive approach

A
  • approach uses highly controlled and rigorous methods of study to enable researchers to infer cognitive processes
  • involved use of lab experiments to produce reliable, objective data
  • enabled biology and cognitive psych to come together establishing a credible scientific basis
109
Q

How is practical applications a positive evaluation point for the cognitive approach

A
  • most dominant approach and has been applied to a wide range of practical and theoretical contexts
  • e.g. AI and development of thinking machines (robots)
  • also has had a vast influence of therapies
  • e.g. CBT to treat depression
110
Q

How is determinism a positive evaluation point for the cognitive approach

A
  • founded on soft determinism as it recognises contribution of free will before responding to a stimulus
  • known as a more reasonable interactionist position compared to behaviourist and biological approaches which are hard deterministic
111
Q

How is negative schema a positive evaluation point for the cognitive approach

A
  • cognitive psych has been used to explain the development of negative schemas
  • can aid understanding of mental illnesses
  • e.g. depression
112
Q

What are negative evaluation points of the cognitive approach

A
  • machine reductionist
  • validity
  • objectivity
113
Q

How is machine reductionist a negative evaluation point for the cognitive approach

A
  • cognitive approach uses computer models
  • phrases like storage and retrieval taken directly from computing
  • however there is an important difference between the sort of processing that takes place
  • computer analogy ignores
    => motivation
    => emotion
    => forgetting
    => mistakes
    => ignoring information
114
Q

How is validity a negative evaluation point for the cognitive approach

A
  • cognitive psych suffers to some extent from being too theoretical and abstract in nature
  • psychologists are only able to infer mental processes from observed behaviour
  • similarly many studies use word lists tested under lab conditioning
  • not applicable to everyday life
  • lacks external validity
115
Q

How is objectivity a negative evaluation point for the cognitive approach

A
  • does not give a full picture about what is really going on inside the working mind
  • psychologists make inferences about cognitive processing
  • may be based on limited information available frmo research
  • questionable whether psychologists can really understanding and explain thinking by using inferences alone
116
Q

What is the biological approach

A
  • the study of the biology of behaviour
  • examines the relationship between mind and body, neural mechanisms and heredity
  • everything psychological begins on a biological basis
117
Q

What are key assumptions of the biological approach

A
  • mechanisms of heredity
  • evolution and behaviour
  • biological structures and behaviour
  • neurochemistry and behaviour
118
Q

What is mechanisms of heredity as an assumption of the biological approach

A
  • heredity is the passing of characteristics
  • can be physical or psychological
  • carry instructions for certain characteristics but how the gene develops depends on interaction with other genes and influence of environment
  • extent to which a psychological characteristic is detained by the genes or environment is known as the nature-nurture debate
  • genetic basis of behaviour is examined through twin studies
119
Q

What is a genotype

A
  • genetic makeup
  • genes an individual possesses
120
Q

What are different components of heredity

A
  • genotype
  • phenotype
121
Q

What is a phenotype

A
  • the way genes are expressed through physical, behaviours and psychological characteristics
  • influenced by environmental factors
122
Q

How are twin studies used in the biological approach

A
  • comparing concordance rate between twins
  • MZ twins share 100% of genes
  • DZ twins share 50% of genes
  • if MZ twins are found to have a higher concordance rate than DZ twins, there is a genetic basis
123
Q

What is evolution and behaviour as an assumption of the biological approach

A
  • Darwin proposed theory of natural selection // survival of the fittest
    => any genetically determined behaviour that enhances an individual’s survival and reproduction will continue in future generations
  • happens naturally in nature
  • characteristics possessed by an individual that are advantageous are selected through reproduction to be passed on
124
Q

What is biological structures and behaviour as an assumption of the biological approach

A
  • involves both nervous system and endocrine system
  • nervous system split into 2 parts
125
Q

How is the nervous system split

A
  • central nervous system
  • peripheral nervous system
126
Q

What is the central nervous system

A
  • compromises of brain and spinal cord
  • act as centre from which individual is controlled
  • e.g. the cognitive processing of the brain
127
Q

What is the peripheral nervous system

A
  • compromises of the somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system
  • somatic nervous system comprises the muscles attached to the skeleton and is pivotal for movement
  • autonomic nervous system oversees bodily organs and involved in fight or flight response
128
Q

What is the endocrine system

A
  • maintains levels of hormones in the blood that are released by glands
  • most important gland is the pituitary gland
    => located in brain
    => master gland as it instructs other glands in the body to secrete hormones when necessary
129
Q

What is neurochemistry and behaviour as an assumption of the biological approach

A
  • split into sections
  • influence of neurotransmitters
  • influence of hormones
  • influence of psychoactive drugs
130
Q

What is the influence of neurotransmitters as part of the biological approach

A
  • chemicals released by neurons to send signals from one to another
  • affect behaviour
  • e.g. low serotonin linked to depression
131
Q

What is the influence of hormones as part of the biological approach

A
  • hormones are released as part of the endocrine system through glands
  • biological psychologists argue hormones levels in the system can affect the behaviour of an individual
  • e.g. high testosterone being linked to aggression
132
Q

What is the influence of psychoactive drugs as part of the biological approach

A
  • affects NTs
  • e.g. cocaine blocks reuptake do dopamine
  • leads to a rush of euphoria
  • OCD
    => serotonin has a role in preventing repetition of tasks
    => treatment, SSRIs reduce symptoms
133
Q

What are positive evaluation points of the biological approach

A
  • scientific
  • practical applications
  • genetic predisposition
134
Q

How is scientific a positive evaluation point for the biological approach

A
  • biological approach uses scientific method
  • use of experimental method
  • take place in highly controlled environments
  • replicability increases
  • increases reliability
135
Q

How is practical applications a positive evaluation point for the biological approach

A
  • biological approach has practical applications
  • e.g. knowledge about neurochemical imbalance in depression (low serotonin) led to development of drug treatments (SSRIs) correcting imbalance
136
Q

How is genetic predisposition a positive evaluation point for the biological approach

A
  • if people know they have a genetic predisposition for a mental disorders, this gives them an opportunity to avoid environmental situations likely to trigger this predisposition or to develop coping skills that would protect them from its potential influences
137
Q

What are negative evaluation points of the biological approach

A
  • reductionist
  • deterministic
  • screening
  • causality
  • evolution
138
Q

How is reductionism a negative evaluation point for the biological approach

A
  • biological approach is biologically reductionist
  • ignores role of emotional and cognitive factors
139
Q

How is screening a negative evaluation point for the biological approach

A
  • recent studies suggesting a genetic basis for criminal behaviour have led to concerns about how this information could be used
  • could lead to genetic screening of populations to identify genetic susceptibilities and subsequent discrimination against those with a genetic predisposition
140
Q

How is causality a negative evaluation point for the biological approach

A
  • no cause and effect relationship
  • unclear to find one
  • do low serotonin levels cause depression or does depression cause low serotonin levels
  • can only assume it is a relationship
141
Q

How is determinism a negative evaluation point for the biological approach

A
  • biologically deterministic view
  • sees human behaviour as being governed by internal, biological causes which we have no control over
  • no control leads to assumption of a criminal gene
  • ignores role of free will
142
Q

How is evolution a negative evaluation point for the biological approach

A
  • unclear as why some genes have been passed on through generations as they are not all for maintaining survival
  • e.g. A1 variant of DRD2 gene has links to addiction
  • therefore evolutionary approach has limited explanatory power
143
Q

What is the psychodynamic approach

A
  • suggests adult behaviour reflects complex dynamic interactions between conscious and unconscious
  • believes psychopathology is caused by conflict between conscious and unconscious thoughts
  • emphasises importance of childhood processes
144
Q

What are key assumptions of the psychodynamic approach

A
  • role of the unconscious mind
  • structure of personality
  • defence mechanisms
  • psychosexual stages
145
Q

What is the role of the unconscious as an assumption of the psychodynamic approach

A
  • Freud believed there are three levels to the mind
  • all levels of the mind have influences on behaviour
146
Q

What are the three levels of the mind in the psychodynamic approach

A
  • conscious mind
  • preconscious mind
  • unconscious mind
147
Q

What is the conscious mind in the psychodynamic approach

A
  • contains thoughts, feelings and memories that a person is currently aware of
148
Q

What is the preconscious mind in the psychodynamic approach

A
  • contains thoughts, feelings and memories that a person could access if they wanted to
149
Q

What is the unconscious mind in the psychodynamic approach

A
  • largest part of the mind
  • inaccessible
  • most everyday actions and behaviours that are not controlled consciously are the product of the unconscious mind
  • reveals itself in slips of the tongue => Freudian Slips
150
Q

Give more details about the role of the unconscious as an assumption of the psychodynamic approach

A
  • mind actively prevents traumatic thoughts/feelings/memories in mind from reaching the conscious mind
  • would cause anxiety if they did
  • during psychoanalysis, therapist (psychoanalyst) tries to access unconscious mind of patients using free association and dream interpretation
151
Q

What is the structure of personality as an assumption of the psychodynamic approach

A
  • personality has a tripartite structure
  • made up of three parts
  • experiences and conflicts in childhood shape the development of the three parts of personality, affecting how a person behaves
152
Q

What are the three parts of the personality in the psychodynamic approach

A
  • id
  • ego
  • superego
153
Q

Explain the role of the id in the psychodynamic approach

A
  • formed between birth and 18 months of age
  • it is the unconscious mind
  • focuses on the self
  • irrational anf emotional
  • deals with feelings and needs
  • seeks pleasure, operating on the pleasure principle
154
Q

Explain the role of the ego in the psychodynamic approach

A
  • formed from around 18 months until 3 years of age
  • conscious mind
  • rational and obtains a balance between the id and superego
  • operates on the reality principle
155
Q

Explain the role of the superego in the psychodynamic approach

A
  • formed between 3 and 6 years of age
  • in the unconscious mind
  • acts as a conscious or moral guide
  • based on parental and societal values
  • operates on the morality principle
156
Q

What is defence mechanisms as an assumption of the psychodynamic approach

A
  • help ego manage conflict between id and superego
  • provide compromise solutions to deal with unresolvable conflict
  • provide a strategy to reduce anxiety => weakens ego’s influence
  • different types
157
Q

What are the different types of defence mechanisms in the psychodynamic approach

A
  • repression
  • denial
  • displacement
158
Q

Explain repression as a defence mechanism in the psychodynamic approach

A
  • unconscious blocking of unacceptable thoughts
  • however, repressed thoughts continue to influence behaviour
159
Q

Explain denial as a defence mechanism in the psychodynamic approach

A
  • refusal to accept reality to avoid having to deal with any painful feelings that may be associated with a traumatic situation
160
Q

Explain displacement as a defence mechanism in the psychodynamic approach

A
  • occurs when the focus of a strong emotion is expressed on an alternative person or object
161
Q

What is psychosexual stages as an assumption of the psychodynamic approach

A
  • Freud believed personality developed through a sequence of 5 stages
    => psychosexual stages
  • emphasise most important driving force in development is the need to express sexual energy (libido)
  • at each stage, this energy is expressed differently
  • Freud believed parents played an important role in a child’s progression through the psychosexual stages
162
Q

What is the role of parents in the psychosexual stages of the psychodynamic approach

A
  • if the child is allowed to experience too much or too little gratification at any of the stages, a process called fixation occurs
  • fixation is when the child’s later adult personality could show permanent signs reflecting the stage at which fixation occurred
163
Q

What are the different psychosexual stages and when are they present

A
  • oral => 0-2 years
  • anal => 2-3 years
  • phallic => 3-6 years
  • latent => 6-12 years
  • genital => 12+ years
164
Q

Explain the oral stage of the psychodynamic approach

A
  • focus of pleasure is the mouth and the control of sucking, tasting and biting
  • consequence if resolution => trusting and able to give/receive affection
  • consequence if unresolved => oral fixation => smoking, biting nails, sarcastic and critical
165
Q

Explain the anal stage of the psychodynamic approach

A
  • focus of pleasure is the anus
  • child gains pleasure from withholding and expelling faeces
  • consequence if resolved => can deal with authority figures
  • consequence if unresolved
    => anal retentive personality => perfectionist and obsessive
    => anal expulsive personality => thoughtless and messy
166
Q

Explain the phallic stage of the psychodynamic approach

A
  • focus of pleasure is the genital area
  • child experiences the Oedipus or Electra complex
  • consequence if resolved => adapts the behaviours and traits of the same sex
  • consequence if unresolved => narcissistic, reckless and possibly homosexual
167
Q

Explain the latent stage of the psychodynamic approach

A
  • focus is on the mastery of the world and social relationships
  • earlier conflicts are repressed
168
Q

Explain the genital stage of the psychodynamic approach

A
  • sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty
  • consequence if resolved => individual is a well adjusted adult
  • consequence if unresolved => difficulty forming heterosexual relationships
169
Q

What is the Oedipus complex

A
  • during phallic stage, boys develop incestuous feelings towards mothers and hatred for rival in love (fathers)
  • fearing that father will castrate them (castration anxiety), boys repress their feelings for mother and identify with father
  • in doing so, they internalise his gender role and moral values (superego)
170
Q

What is the Electra complex

A
  • during phallic stage, girls experience penis envy and so desire their father
  • they also believe they have been castrated and blame their mother for this
  • over time, girls give up desire for father and replace this with a desire for a baby
  • in turn, they identify with their mother and internalise her gender role and moral values (superego)
171
Q

What are positive evaluation points for the psychodynamic approach

A
  • appeal
  • practical applications
  • Little Hans
172
Q

What are negative evaluation points for the psychodynamic approach

A
  • falsifiability
  • sample
173
Q

How is appeal a positive evaluation point for the psychodynamic approach

A
  • psychodynamic concepts such as defence mechanisms have intuitive appeal
  • most people appreciate the ideas of denial, repression and displacement
174
Q

How is practical applications a positive evaluation point for the psychodynamic approach

A
  • led to development of psychoanalysis
  • a therapy for the treatment of anxiety disorders
  • laid foundation for psychotherapy in modern psychiatry
175
Q

How is Little Hans a positive evaluation point for the psychodynamic approach

A
  • supports Oedipus complex
  • however, Oedipus complex could only be inferred from behaviour or reported thoughts and experiences through dream analysis
  • subjective interpretations, open to investigator bias
  • lacks scientific rigour
176
Q

How is falsifiability a negative evaluation point for the psychodynamic approach

A
  • key concepts of the psychodynamic approach lack falsifiability
  • unconscious processes
  • difficult to test
  • e.g. unconscious mind and defence mechanisms
177
Q

How is sample a negative evaluation point for the psychodynamic approach

A
  • concepts of psychodynamic approach are based on small samples due to reliance of the case study method
  • poses problems of generalisability
178
Q

What are the assumptions of the humanistic approach

A
  • Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
  • focus on the self
  • counselling psychology
179
Q

What is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs as an assumption of the humanistic approach

A
  • a person’s most basic physiological needs are represented at bottom
  • more advanced needs at top
  • people motivated to achieve progression through levels
  • each level must be fulfilled before moving up
  • Maslow believed the most basic the need, the more powerfully it is experienced and the more difficult it is to ignore
180
Q

What is the hierarchy of needs in the humanistic approach

A
181
Q

What is self actualisation in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs in the humanistic approach

A
  • occurs when a person reaches their full potential and is the best version of themselves
182
Q

What did Maslow suggest about self actualisation

A
  • found that most of those who attained self actualisation shared certain characteristics
  • tended to be creative, accepting of other peple and had an accurate perception of the world around them
  • believe that such individuals experienced self actualisation in the form of peak experiences
  • these are moments of extreme inspiration and ecstasy during which they felt able to leave behind all doubts, fears and inhibitions
183
Q

What is focus on the self as an assumption of the humanistic approach

A
  • Rogers (1951) claimed people have two basic needs
    => positive regard from other people
    => feelings of self worth
184
Q

Explain the basic need of feelings of self worth in the humanistic approach

A
  • develop in childhood from interactions with parents
  • further interactions with significant others in adulthood also have an influence
  • when there is a similarity between a persons’ perceived self and ideal self, a state of congruence exists
  • however a difference results in a state of incongruence
  • the closer the perceived self is to the ideal self, the higher our feelings of self worth
185
Q

Explain the state of congruence in the humanistic approach

A
  • it is rare for a complete state of congruence to exist
    => most people experience some degree of incongruence
  • however, most people see themselves in ways that are largely consistent with their ideal self
186
Q

Explain the basic need of positive regard in the humanistic approach

A
  • positive regard given by others may be unconditional when a person is accepted for who they are or conditional
  • when people experience conditional positive regard, they develop conditions of worth
    => conditions which they believe have to be met to be accepted by others
  • an individual will only experience a sense of self acceptance if they meet the expectations that others have set as conditions of acceptance
187
Q

What is counselling psychology as an assumption of the humanistic approach

A
  • Rogers (1959) claimed an individual’s psychological problems were a direct result of the conditional positive regard they receive from other people
  • he believed that with counselling, people would be able to solve their own problems in constructive ways and move towards being a more functioning person
  • instead of acting in a direct way, humanist psychologists regard themselves as guides to help people understand themselves and find ways to enable their potential for self actualisation
188
Q

What is the role of therapist in counselling psychology in the humanistic approach

A
  • provide unconditional positive regard, expressing acceptance and understanding
  • therefore able to provide a supportive environment to help dissolve the client’s conditions of worth
  • result in the client moving towards being more true to their self
189
Q

What is a positive evaluation point of the humanistic approach

A
  • free will
  • humanists believe in free will
  • however, science believes all behaviour is caused by something
  • determinism in science allows for general laws and predictability of behaviour, and so there is limited application of the humanistic approach
190
Q

What are negative evaluation points of the humanistic approach

A
  • scientific
  • operationalisation
  • culture bias
  • unrealistic
191
Q

How is scientific a negative evaluation point for the humanistic approach

A
  • humanistic psychology lacks scientific rigour
  • proposes we should study the whole person as each individual is unique
  • however science relies on reductionism
192
Q

How is operationalisation a negative evaluation point for the humanistic approach

A
  • humanists propose concepts such as self actualisation where definitions lack operationalisation
  • there is no objective measure of whether someone has self actualised, leading to a lack of empirical evidence to support its claims
193
Q

How is culture bias a negative evaluation point for the humanistic approach

A
  • many ideas central to humanistic psychology, such as personal growth, are much more readily associated with individualist cultures
  • collectivist cultures which emphasise the needs of the community may not identify so easily with the ideals and values of humanistic psychology
  • therefore it is possible that this approach is the product of the cultural context within which it was developed
194
Q

How is unrealistic a negative evaluation point for the humanistic approach

A
  • some critics argue that the humanistic approach presents an overly idealised and unrealistic view of human nature
  • people are not as inherently good or growth orientated as this approach suggests
  • in fact this approach ignores people’s capacity for pessimism and self destruction
195
Q

Compare the approaches in terms of free will and determinism

A
  • biological => biologically determinist => behaviour is controlled by internal biological factors, e.g. genes and neurochemistry
  • behaviourist => environmental determinism => behaviour is controlled by stimulus response association
  • SLT => soft determinism => behaviour is influenced by environmental forces but humans have some free will
  • cognitive => soft determinism => behaviour can be controlled by schemas etc. but individuals choose what information they attend to
  • psychodynamic => psychic determinism => behaviour is determined by unconscious instincts and drives
  • humanist => free will => humans control their own behaviour
196
Q

Compare the approaches in terms of nature and nurture

A
  • biological => nature => behaviour is the result of innate biological factors, e.g. genes
  • behaviourist => nurture => humans are born as a blank slate so all behaviour is learnt
  • SLT => nurture => behaviour is learnt through observation and imitation of models
  • cognitive => both => behaviour is product of information processing (nature) which can be modified by experience (nurture)
  • psychodynamic => both => behaviour is the product of innate drives (nature) as well as childhood experiences (nurture)
  • humanist => nurture => behaviour is shaped by the environment as humans strive to achieve self actualisation
197
Q

Compare the approaches in terms of reductionism and holism

A
  • biological => biological reductionism => behaviour is broken down into biological structures/processes
  • behaviourist => environmental reductionism => behaviour is broke down into stimulus response association
  • SLT => holistic => takes into account both behavioural and cognitive factors in behaviour
  • cognitive => holistic => but also accused of machine reductionism by comparing the human mind to a computer
  • psychodynamic => holistic => proposes that personality is the dynamic interaction between instincts, drives and childhood experiences
  • humanist => holistic => focuses on understanding all aspects of human experience
198
Q

Compare the approaches in terms of idiographic and nomothetic

A
  • biological => nomothetic => creates universal laws, as humans share similar psychology
  • behaviourist => nomothetic => creates universal laws as people learn through either association or consequence
  • SLT => nomothetic => attempts to establish general laws, e.g. vicarious reinforcement
  • cognitive => both => attempts to establish general laws (e.g. through theoretical models) but also utilises case studies (e.g. HM and KF)
  • psychodynamic => both => attempts to establish general laws (e.g. psychosexual stages) but also utilises case studies and considers unique childhood experiences
  • humanist => idiographic => focuses on the subjective human experience
199
Q

Compare the approaches in terms of scientific

A
  • biological => scientific => promotes scientific methods, e.g. brain scanning and uses animal research
  • behaviourist => scientific => utilises scientific methods, e.g. lab experiments and uses animal research
  • SLT => mostly scientific => utilises scientific methods but also considers subjective mediational processes
  • cognitive => mostly scientific => utilises scientific methods (e.g. lab experiments) but also researches concepts not directly observable (e.g. cognitive errors)
  • psychodynamic => not scientific => examines concepts that cannot be empirically trusted (e.g. repressed memories) and relies on subjective interpretations of case studies
  • humanistic => not scientific => rejects scientific methods and is therefore unable to provide empirical evidence
200
Q

Compare the approaches in terms of application

A
  • biological => drug treatments, e.g. SSRIs for depression
  • behaviourist => token economy, SD, flooding
  • SLT => age ratings on films and games
  • cognitive => CTB, REBT, anger management
  • psychodynamic => psychotherapy
  • humanist => counselling
201
Q

What are different factors the approaches can be compared against

A
  • free will vs determinism
  • nature vs nurture
  • reductionism vs holism
  • idiographic vs nomothetic
  • scientific
  • applications

A Level Psychology (12 decks)

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