Approaches Flashcards
Who is termed the ‘father of psychology’
Wilhelm Wundt
Define science
a means of acquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigation. The aim is to discover general laws.
Describe Wundt’s contribution to psychology
- was the first person to call himself a psychologist- believing that all aspects of nature, including the human minds, could be studied a scientifically. His approach paves the way to the acceptance of psychology as a distinct science in its own right, and experimental psychology as the preferred method of studying human behaviour.
- laboratory in Germany- 1879- studied those aspects of behaviour that could only be strictly controlled under experimental conditions- such as perception and reaction time. This marks the beginning of scientific psychology- separating it from its broader philosophical roots.
- his aim was to examine the structure of the minds, and believed the only way to do this was to breakdown behaviours such as perception into their basic elements- represented the first systematic attempt to study the mind under controlled conditions
- approach with their forwards and structuralism- isolated the structure of consciousness- the stimuli that him and his coworkers experienced were always presented in the same order and the same instructions were issued to all participants
- husd introspection- a form of self examination- trained subjects would attempt to record their thoughts and to breakdown their responses and reactions. For example in his studies of perception, participants would be presented with carefully controlled stimuli, such as visual image, and then asked to provide a description of the inner process as they were experiencing as they looked at the image. This made it possible to compare participants responses to the same stimuli, and so established general theories about perception and other mental processes. Favoured divides that observations into three categories- thoughts, images and sensations.
Strengths of Wundt’s approach to psychology
Scientific approach:
- some of his methods were systematic and well controlled
- all introspections were recorded in the controlled environment of the lab- ensuring that possible extraneous variables were not a factor
- procedures and instructions were carefully standardised so that’s all participants received the same information and were tested in the same way
- suggests his research can be considered a forerunner for later scientific approaches in psychology, such as the behaviourist approach
Contribution:
- produced the first academic journal for psychological research and wrote the first textbook
- often referred to as the founder of modern psychology- even suggested that his pioneering research sets the foundation for approaches that word to come, particularly the behaviourist approach on cognitive psychology
- introspection is still used- Griffiths- used introspection to study the cognitive process of fruits machine gamblers. Asked men to think aloud using a microphone
- Csikzentmilyi and Hunter (2003) used introspection to study happiness in their work in the area of positive psychology.
Weaknesses of Wundt’s approach to psychology
Unreliable methods:
- introspection relies on non observable responses
- although participants reported on their conscious experiences, the processes themselves, such as perception, were not observable
- therefore, his approach failed due to the lack of reliability of his methods
- his introspective results were not reliably reproduced by other researchers in other labs
Introspection not accurate- lacks validity:
- Nisbett and Wilson- states that we have little knowledge of the process is underlying our behaviour and attitudes, so this challenges the introspective reports. For example, aperson maybe implicitly racist, which influences the way they react to members of a different ethnic group, yes because these attitudes exist outside of conscious awareness, self reports through introspection would not uncover them
Subjective data:
- relies on participants self reporting their mental process
- search data is subjective, some participants may have hidden some of their thoughts
- difficult to establish meaningful laws of behaviour from such data, and general laws are useful to predict future behaviour, one of the aims of science
- suggests that some of his early efforts to study the minds were flawed and would not meet the criteria of scientific inquiry
What are the goals of psychology as a science
- Description – tells us “what” occurred
- Explanation – tells us “why” a behaviour or a mental process occurred
- Prediction – identifies conditions under which a future behaviour or mental process is likely to occur
- Change – applies psychological knowledge to prevent unwanted behaviour and to bring about desired change
Describe the emergence of psychology as a science
1900s behaviourists:
- by the beginning of the 20th century, the value of introspection was questioned by many, most notably by behaviourist John Watson- the problem was that introspection produced subjective data, so that it was very difficult to establish general laws
- watson, and later Skinner, proposed that a truly scientific psychology should only study phenomena that can be observed objectively and measured
- for this reason, behaviourists focused on behaviours that they could see, and used carefully controlled experiments- bought the language, rigour and methods of the natural sciences into psychology
- their focus on the scientific process involved in learning, alongside the use of carefully controlled lab experiments- could be easily repeated by other researchers to determine whether the same results are obtained- reliability
- the behaviourist approach would go on to dominate scientific psychology for the next 50 years
1950s Cognitive approach:
- the digital revolution gave the 1950s a new generation of psychologists a new metaphor for studying the mind
- cognitive psychologists likened the mind to a computer- for example the multi store model- and tested their predictions about memory and attention using experiments
- the cognitive approach ensured that the study of the mind was, once again, a legitimate and highly scientific aspect of the discipline
1980s Biological approach:
- in more recent times, the biological approach has taken scientific psychology to new levels
- researchers within this area have taken advantage of advances in technology to investigate physiological processes as they happen
- for example, the use of sophisticated scanning techniques such as fMRI and EEG to study live activity in the brain
- knew methods commerce such as genetic testing, have also allowed us to better understand the relationship between genes and behaviour
Strengths of the emergence of psychology as a science
Objective:
- reliance on objective and systematic methods of observations means that knowledge acquired using the scientific method is more than just the passive acceptance of facts
Determinism:
- scientific methods rely on a belief in determinism, so they are able to establish cause and effect of behaviour
- they use well controlled conditions that allow for replicability to be certain of both the cause and effect
Modern psychology:
- modern psychology can claim to be scientific
- psychology has the same aims as the natural sciences- to describe, understands, predict, and control behaviour
- the learning approaches, cognitive approach and biological approach all rely on the use of scientific methods, for example, lab studies to investigate theories in a controlled unbiased way.
- this suggests that throughout the 20th century and beyond, psychology has established itself as a scientific discipline
Weaknesses of the emergence of psychology as a science
Not natural environments:
- by concentrating on objectivity and control in observations, scientific psychologists create contrived situations that may tell us little about how people act in more natural environments
Unobservable subject matter:
- much of the subject matter in psychology is unobservable, therefore cannot be directly measured with any degree of accuracy
- of all the sciences, psychology has to make the biggest inferences- there is a far bigger gap between the actual data obtained in research investigations and the theories put forward to explain the data
Subjective data:
- not all approaches use objective methods
- the humanistic approach for Jack’s the scientific approach, preferring to focus on individual experiences and subjective experience
- the psychodynamic approach makes use of the case study method which does not use representative samples
- the subjects of study- human beings- are active participants in research, responding for example to demand characteristics
- therefore a scientific approach to the study of human thoughts and experience may not always be desirable or possible
Paradigm:
- The philosopher Thomas Kuhn said that any science must have a paradigm- a set of principles, assumptions and methods that all people who work within that subject agree on
- he went on to say that psychology is not a science because it does not have one of these as there is so much internal disagreement at its core
Assumptions in the cognitive approach
- argues that internal mental processes can, and should, be studied scientifically
- as a result, the cognitive approach have investigated those areas of human behaviour that’s were neglected by behaviourists, such as memory, perception and thinking
- these processes are private and cannot be observed, so cognitive psychologists study them indirectly by making inferences about what is going on inside peoples minds on the basis of their behaviour
- an inference is where a psychologist makes a reasons conclusion about mental process is based on observable behaviour- allow cognitive psychologists to generate theories and models
Describe the role of schema
- cognitive processing can often be affected by a person’s beliefs or expectations, which are often referred to a schema
- they are packages of ideas and information developed through experience- they act as a mental framework for the interpretation of incoming information received by the cognitive system
Describe the development of schema
- babies are born with simple motor schema for innate behaviour such as sucking and grasping- for example the grasping schema consists of moving a hand towards an object and shaping the hands around the object in coordination with visual input
- as we get older, our schema become more detailed and sophisticated
- young children for example may develop a schema for a horse involving size, four legs and a tail- when they first encounter a cow for the first time they may initially call it a horse as it fits with the characteristics of the schema- however once they are told it is not a horse, they will modify their existing schema for a horse and create a new schema for a cow
- adults have developed mental representations for everything
- as experiences happen and new information is presented, new schemas are developed and old schemas are changed or modified
Positives and negatives of schema
Positives:
- enable us to process lots of information quickly and this is useful as a sort of mental shortcut that prevents us from being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli
- allow us to take cognitive shortcuts in interpreting the vast amount of information that is available in our environment
Negatives:
- cause us to focus on only things that confirm our pre existing beliefs and ideas and perceptions and ignore those things that contradict it
- can cause us to interpret situations incorrectly- when an event that happens that challenges these existing beliefs, people may come up with alternative explanations that that hold on supports their existing schema instead of adapting or changing their beliefs- confirmatory bias
- can contribute to stereotypes and make it difficult to retain new information that does not conform to our established ideas about the world
Supporting research for schema
Bugelski and Alampay- the rat man study:
- two groups of participants shown series of pictures- either different faces or different animals
- then shown ambiguous figure- rat-man
- the group who were previously shown faces were more likely to perceive the figure as a face, and the group who were shown animals were more likely to perceive the figure as a rat
What two types of models do cognitive psychologists use to help them understand internal mental processes
theoretical, computer
Describe theoretical models used in cognitive psychology
- example- the information processing approach- suggests information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages- input, storage, retrieval- as in the multi store model- based on the way computers function
Describe computer models used in cognitive psychology
- the start of the use of computers allowed psychologists to try to understand the complexities of human cognition by comparing the mind to a computer, by suggesting there are similarities in the way that information is processed
- these models use the concept of a central processing unit- the brain, the use of coding- to turn information into a usable format, and the use of stores to hold information
- involve actually programming a computer to see if such instructions produce a similar output to humans- if we do then we can suggest that similar processes are going on in the human mind
- these computational models have proved useful in the development of thinking machines or artificial intelligence
What is cognitive neuroscience
The scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes
Describe the emergence of cognitive neuroscience
- mapping brain areas to specific cognitive functions has a long history in psychology
- As early as the 1860s Paul Broca had identified how damage to an area of the frontal lobe- Broca’s area- could permanently impair speech production
- it is only in the last 25 years, however, with advances in brain imaging techniques such as fMRI and PET scan’s, that scientists have been able to systematically observe and describe the neurological basis of mental processes
- for example, in research involving tasks that required the use of episodic and semantic memory,Buckner and Peterson we’re able to show how these different types of long term memory may be located on opposite sides of the prefrontal cortex- as well as this, the system in overall charge of working memory- the central executive- is thought to reside in a similar area (Braver et al)
- scanning techniques have also proved useful in establishing the neurological basis of some mental disorders- for example link between parahippocampal gyrus and OCD, also appears to play a role in processing unpleasant emotions
- another important development is that a neurosurgeon can now place an electrode on various areas of the exposed brain of an awake patient during surgery while the patient describes what he or she feels and thinks
- the focus of cognitive neuroscience has expanded recently to include the use of computer generated models that are designed to ‘read’ the brain- has led to the development of mind mapping techniques known as brain fingerprinting- one possible future application of this could be to analyse the brain wave patterns of eyewitnesses to determine whether they are lying in court
Strengths of the cognitive approach
Real world application:
- the cognitive approach is probably the dominant approach in Psychology Today and has been applied to a wide variety of practical and theoretical contacts
- for example it has made an important contribution in the fields of artificial intelligence and the development of thinking machines- revolutionise how we live in the future
- conative principles have also been applied to the treatment of depression and improved the reliability of eyewitness testimony
- the cognitive approach to psychopathology has been used to explain how much of the dysfunctional behaviour shown by other people can be traced back to faulty thinking process is- has led to the successful treatment of people suffering from illnesses such as depression and OCD using cognitive based therapy
- supports the value of the cognitive approach
Scientific methods:
- uses objective, scientific methods
- cognitive psychologists employ highly controlled and rigorous methods of study so researchers are able to infer cognitive processes at work
- this has involved the use of lab studies to produce reliable, objective data
- in addition, the emergence of cognitive neuroscience has enabled the two fields of biology and cognitive psychology to come together to enhance the scientific basis of the study
- means that the study of the mind has a credible scientific basis
- COUNTER- abstract and theoretical- see weaknesses
Flexibility:
- the cognitive approach is founded on soft determinism- the view that human behaviour may be determined by internal and external factors but we also can exert our free will at times
- hard determinism view says all our behaviour is determined by factors other than our will, such as conditioning and genes- makes the cognitive approach a more flexible position than the behaviouralist approach
Weaknesses of the cognitive approach
Abstract and theoretical:
- ask cognitive psychology relies on the inference of mental process is, rather than direct observation of behaviour, it can occasionally suffer from being too abstract and theoretical in nature
- similarly, research studies of mental process is often carried out using artificial stimuli, such as tests of memory involving word lists, that may not represent everyday experience
- therefore, research on cognitive processes may lack external validity
Machine reductionism:
- the cognitive approach is based on machine reductionism
- there are similarities between the human minds and the operations of a thinking machine such as computers- inputs, outputs, storage systems, the use of a central processor
- however, the computer analogy has been criticised- such machine reductionism ignores the influence of human emotion and motivation on the cognitive system, and tell this may affect our ability to process information
- for instance, research has found that human memory may be affected by emotional factors, such as the influence of anxiety on eyewitnesses
- this suggests that machine reductionism may weaken the validity of the cognitive approach
Assumptions of the biological approach
- suggests that everything psychological is at first biological, so to fully understand human behaviour, we must look to biological structures and processes within the body
- from a biological perspective, the mines lives in the brain- meaning that all thoughts, feelings and behaviour ultimately have a physical basis
- contrast’s to the cognitive approach for example that sees mental process is of the minds as being separate from the physical brain
Describe the genetic basis of behaviour- how it happens, studies, what it is affected by
- the mechanisms of heredity- heredity is the passing of characteristics from one generation to the next through the genes, and is the reason why offspring take after their parents in terms of psychological characteristics
- twin studies are used to determine the likelihood that certain traits have a genetic basis by comparing the concordance rates between a pair of twins- the extent to which both twins share the same characteristic
- if identical (monozygotic) twins are found to have a higher concordance rate than non identical (dizygotic) twins it would suggest a genetic basis- this is because monozygotic twins share 100% of their genes, whereas dizygotic share only 50%- less than 100% CR in MZ suggests environment has some effect- in both cases environment is assumed to be constant
- genes carry the instructions for a particular characteristic- such as intelligence or temperament- but how this develops depends partly on the interaction of the gene with other genes, and partly on the influence of the environment
- the extent to which a psychological characteristic is determined by genes or environment is called the nature-nurture debate
Describe genotype and phenotype
- Genotype- the genetic codes that is written in the DNA of an individuals cells
- phenotype- a behaviour and physical structure of an individual arising from an interaction between their genotype and their environment- the way that chains are expressed through physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics
- despite having the same genotype, the way identical twins genes are expressed- the phenotype- is different- much of human behaviour depends upon an interaction between inherited factors- nature- an the environment- nurture
Describe the relationship between evolution and behaviour
- evolution is the changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations- the mechanism behind biological evolution is natural selection
- individuals within a species differ from each other in terms of their physical characteristics and end their behaviour, and at least some of this variation is inherited
- because individuals must compete with each other for access to resources- like foods and mates- those who survive this competition and go on to reproduce will tend to have behaviours that are more likely to lead to survival and reproductive success than those who do not- survival of the fittest- with the term fittest to mean those most suited to this specific environment
- therefore, over successive generations these advantages behaviours will be passed on to offspring and become widespread in the population- natural selection- and those behaviours that are not advantageous will die out
Describe the impact of biological structures, name 3 examples/studies
Various arts of the brain have various functions.
Phineas Gage:
- accident- metal bar of 3cm diameter passed through skull and brain
- survived and showed little intellectual impairment, continued to function normally
- showed marked changes to personality went from being mild mannered to quick tempered and foul mouthed
- modern examination of his skull showed damage was done to frontal lobes- suggests these areas are involved with controlling impulses
Maguire et al:
- 16 right handed male london taxi drivers
- compared to control group of 50 RH males who aren’t taxi drivers
- used structural MRI scans
- found increased grey matter in the left and right hippocampi- posterior- in taxi drivers compared to non taxi drivers
- correlation found between the amount of time spent as a taxi driver and the volume of the right posterior hippocampus
- results provide evidence for structural differences in the brain of London taxi drivers and control- extensive practice with spacial navigation affects the hippocampus
HM:
- see memory notes- hippocampus removed- affected behaviour
Describe the influence of neurochemistry on behaviour- neurotransmitters
- when an electrical nerve impulse reaches the end of a neuron, a chemical known as a neurotransmitter is released- these travel across synapses
- the levels of these neurotransmitters can affect moods and behaviour in individuals
- for example, the dopamine hypothesis in schizophrenia suggests that schizophrenia results from an excess of dopamine- this causes the neurons to fire more often and transmits too many messages- these messages overload may produce many of the symptoms of schizophrenia. A more recent explanation suggests individuals may have too many dopamine receptors, rather than too much dopamine, but the end result is the same
- another example is that there are low levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin in OCD
Describe the influence of neurochemistry on behaviour- hormones
- hormones are chemicals produced by the endocrine glands
- the presence of a home and causes a physiological reaction in the cell, altering its activity
- an example of the effects of hormones was investigated by Carre et al (2006)- started a Canadian ice hockey team over the course of a season- found evidence of a surge in levels of the hormone testosterone whenever the team played in the home stadium, suggesting the hormone energised the players to defend their home and territory
Strengths of the biological approach
Scientific method of investigation:
- the biological approach utilises precise scientific methods to investigate the genetic and biological basis of behaviour
- These include fMRIs, EEGs, family studies and drug trials
- with advances in technology, it is possible to accurately measure physiological and neural processes in ways that are not open to buy us
- because these methods use objective measurements they can be easily replicated and therefore tested for reliability
- father, the scientific status and association with the medical profession means that the approach enjoys credibility
Real life application:
- increased understanding of biochemical processes in the brain has led to the development of psychoactive drugs thought treat mental illnesses, such as depression- antidepressant drugs can increase levels of the nearest transmitter serotonin at the synapses in the brain
- although they may not work for all, they often are used successfully to manage the condition whilst the patient waits to gain access to talking therapies
- this is a strength of the biological approach as it means that sufferers can gain relief from their condition without the need for hospitalisation- can remain in the community
HOWEVER, they do not work for everyone. Cipriani et al (2018)- compared to 21 antidepressant drugs and found wide variations in their effectiveness. Although most of the drugs were more effective than placebos in comparative trials, the researchers concluded that the effects of antidepressants, in general, were mainly modest. This challenge is the value of the biological approach because it suggests that brain chemistry alone may not account for all cases of, for example, depression.
Weaknesses of the biological approach
Cannot establish cause and effect when looking at brain structures:
- even if we know with certainty which part of the brain is active and the level of activity in the brain, we can never be absolutely sure that the brain activity influences the behaviour
- is it that the brain activity causes the behaviour or does the behaviour cause the brain activity?
- so whilst the research is informative, we cannot be absolutely sure of the cause and the effect
Determinism:
- the biological approach is deterministic in that it sees human behaviour as governed by internal biological causes of which we have no control over
- this has implications for society and the law- for example, one of the rules of law is that we are responsible for our actions
- however, if it is discovered that there is a genetic basis for being a criminal, would this mean criminals could not be deemed accountable?
- the way in which and individuals genotype is expressed- there phenotype- is heavily influenced by the environment
- suggests that the biological view is often too simplistic and ignores the mediating effects of the environment
Natural Selection:
- Critics of Darwins work, such as Karl Popper, claim that it is not possible to falsify the theory of natural selection- a key criterion of science- as we cannot show evolution happening, we can only deduce it has taken place
- HOWEVER, others claim that the basic principles are supported by fossil records- for example sharing dinosaurs changing into birds
Describe the behaviourist approach
- only interested in studying behaviour that can be observed and measured- not mental processes
- Watson rejected introspection- too vague an difficult to measure- relied on lab studies instead to maintain control and objectivity
- believe all behaviour is learnt- baby’s mind is blank slate (tabula rasa)
- following Darwin, suggested basic properties that govern learning are the same in all species- animals replace humans as experimental subjects in studies
- People have no free will – a person’s environment determines their behaviour
- classical and operant conditioning
Describe classical conditioning
- learning via association
- occurs when 2 stimuli are repeatedly paired together- an unconditioned (unlearned) stimulus (UCS) and a new neutral stimuli.
- The neutral stimuli eventually produces the same response as the unconditioned (unlearned) stimulus alone
- NS becomes CS- produces CR even in absence of original UCS- generlised to similar stimuli
Describe Pavlov’s research into classical conditioning
- Food- UCS- produced salivation- UCR
- Bell- NS
- paired food with bell repeatedly
- bell alone produced salivation (CS producing CR)
Describe other features of classical condtioning
- Extinction – After a few presentations of the CS in the absence of the UCS, it loses its ability to produce the CR
- Stimulus generalisations – Pavlov also discovered that once an animal has been conditioned they will also respond to other stimuli that are similar to the CS.
Strengths of classical conditioning
Research evidence to support:
- Watson and Rayner- Little Albert (9 months old)
- Loud noise = UCS, produced fear (UCR)
- White rat= NS
- repeatedly paired over 7 weeks
- NS–> CS that produced fear response (CR)
- eventually developed phobia of white rat and similar things
Practical application:
- CC led to treatments of anxiety associated with phobias
- systematic desensitization - therapy based on CC- workers by eliminating the learnt anxious response (CR)
- tries to replace CR of anxiety with CR of relaxation so anxiety no longer felt in feared situation
- therapy been found effective to treat range of phobias
Well-controlled research:
- behaviourist approach based on well controlled research - focused on measurement of observable features with highly controlled lab settings
- breaks down behaviour into basic stimulus-response units, all other possible extraneous variables removed- cause and effect can be established
Weaknesses of classical conditioning
Ignores other factors:
- different species gave different challenges to survive so have different capabilities to learn CC
- Seligman (1970) proposed the concept of preparedness
- animals are prepared to learn association clearly associated with survival needs (e.g. smell of meat with food) but unprepared to associate unrelated things too survival (e.g. sound of bell)
- means CC is not easily implemented and as such, could be limited
Describe operant conditioning
- Skinner- best way to understand behaviour is to consider its consequences - positive/negative makes more/less likely to be repeated
-reinforcement is something in the environment that strengthens (or reinforces) a particular behaviour so it makes it more likely to occur- positive and negative - positive- produces pleasant consequence- e.g. give praise/reward
- negative- takes away something unpleasent e.g. removing anxiety b avoiding stimulus
- punishment- decreases the likelihood that behaviour will be repeated. It is an unpleasant consequence of behaviour
- positive punishment- giving something unpleasant
- negative punishment- taking away something desireable
What are further different types of reinforcement
- continous- provided every time after the desired behaviour
- partial- reinforce occasionally- e.g. used in slot machines- mre resistant to extinction as continuously play in hopes of winning
- variable- number f times between reinforcement changes randomly
- ratio- reinforcement after certain intervals
Describe skinners research
- skinners box
- rats and smetimes pigeons
- every time rat activated lever within box it was rewarded with food pellet - animal wouldcontinue to perform behaviour
- could also be conditioned to perform same behaviour to avoid unpleasent stimulus e.g. electric shock
Strengths of operant condotioning
Empirical support:
- Skinner- used experimental method
- establish cause (IV- consequence of behaviour) and effect (DV- behaviour)
- can establish Cause and effect between consequences of behaviour (positive/negative) and the likelihood of it being repeated
Real life application:
- OC is basis of token economy programmes used in prisons/psychiatric wards
- reward appropriate behaviour with tokens (secondary reinforceres) that can be exchanged for privileges (primary reinforcers)
- have successfully shaped patient/prisoner behaviour to be more acceptable- particularly useful when other therapies that require insight arent available
Well controlled research:
- behaviourist approach based on well controlled research - focused on measurement of observable features with highly controlled lab settings
- breaks down behaviour into basic stimulus-response units, all other possible extraneous variables removed- cause and effect can be established
Weaknesses of operant conditioning
Free will /environmental determinism:
- cristics argue skinners reliance on rats and igeons mean his studies can tell us little about human behaviour
- claim that unlike non-human animals, humans have free will rather than having behaviour determined by positive/negative reinforcement
- HOWEVER, skinner argued that free will is merely an illusion and what we believe are chosen behaviours are actually the product of external forces that guide our behaviour on a daily basis
Mechanistic view of behaviour:
- animals seen as passive and machine like responders to the environment, with little or no conscious insight into our behaviour
- other approaches such as cognitive or SLT have emphasisedthe importance of mental events during learning
- these processes which mediate between stimulus and response suggest people play more active role in our own learning- behavioursit may apply less to human than animal behaviour
Ethical issues:
- animals housed in harsh, cramped conditions
- kept below natural weight so always hungry
Assumptions of social learning theory
- It combines principles from the both behaviourist and the cognitive approaches
- It is concerned with human rather than animal behaviour
- SLT sees people as active manipulators of their own environment rather passive receivers of experiences
- Learning occurs through the observation of role models
- Observational learning can take place without any reinforcement – simply observing the model is sufficient for learning to take place
- Reinforcement may be direct or indirect (vicarious reinforcement)
- Observational learning uses cognitive processes such as memory. These processes occur between stimulus and response are known as mediational processes
- Much human behaviour is learned in interpersonal situations
Describe vicarious reinforcement
- for indirect learning to take place, an individual observes the behaviour of others
- the Atlanta may imitate this behaviour but, in general, imitation only occurs if the behaviour is seen to be rewarded- reinforced- rather than punished
- first, the learner observes a behaviour but most importantly also observes the consequences of a behaviour
Describe modelling
- in order for social learning to take place, some must carry out or model the behaviour
- individuals that perform this role are referred to as models
- they can be live models such as parents or siblings, or symbolic such as someone portrayed in the media
Describe imitation ad teh factors that affect it
- refers to the copying of behaviour by others
- the key determinants of whether a behaviour is imitated are: the characteristics of the model, the observers perceived ability to perform the behaviour, and the observed consequences of their behaviour
Describe identification
- refers to the extent to which an individual relates to a model and feels that they are similar to the person
- in order to identify with a model, observers must feel that they are similar enough to them, so that they will receive the same outcome
- research suggests thought children are more likely to identify with, and preferable learn from, models who are similar to them, particularly same sex models (e.g. Shutts et al, 2010)
Describe the role of mediational process is in SLT, name the four
- we don’t automatically observe the behaviour of a model and imitated- there is some cognition involved prior to imitation- mediation process is
4 proposed by Bandura: - Attention- the extent to which we notice certain behaviours
- Retention- how well the behaviour is remembered
- motor reproduction- at the ability of the observer to perform the behaviour
- motivation- the will to perform the behaviour, which is often determined by whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished
first two relate to the learning of behaviour and last two relate to the performance of behaviour- unlike traditional behaviourism, the learning and performance of behaviour need not occurred together- observed behaviours may be stored by the observer and reproduced at a later time.
