Approaches Flashcards
When was the first lab dedicated to psychology created?
Opened by Wilhelm Wundt in Leipzig, Germany in 1879
What is introspection?
Wundt and his co-workers recorded their own conscious thoughts and broke them down into images, sensations and feelings.
How was introspection recorded?
All introspections were recorded under strictly controlled conditions using the same stimulus every time (such as a ticking metronome).
The same standardised instructions were issued to all participants, and this allowed procedures to be repeated in exactly the same way (replicated) every single time
How did Psychology become scientific and classed differently to Philosophy?
Wundt’s work created a new, scientific psychology now distinct from philosophy
Introspection was seen as controlled and standardised which is part of the criteria for scientific research. Therefore this is how psychology emerged as a science.
Watson was critical of using Introspection as a scientific way of studying behaviour . . .
John B. Watson was critical of introspection as it produced subjective (biased) data and could not establish general laws.
How was the behaviourist approach created?
Watson proposed that a truly scientific psychology should only study things that could be observed and measured, which led to the behaviourist approach
How did Watson and Skinner increase the scientific credibility of Psychology?
Watson and Skinner brought methods from the natural sciences into psychology such as controlled lab experiments
How did the Cognitive Revolutio increase the scientific credibility of Psychology?
Following the Cognitive Revolution of the 1960s, the study of mental processes is now seen as a highly scientific area within psychology
How does the Biological Approach increase the scientific credibility of Psychology?
The biological approach also makes use of experimental data. Recent advances in technology mean that imaging techniques investigate physiological processes such as ‘live’ activity in the brain.
Summary of ‘The Emergence of Psychology as a Science’
Wundt - 1st lab dedicated to Psychology. Saw introspection as an effective way of exploring human behaviour. Introspection was recorded in a controlled and standardised manner. Psychology could now be seen as different to Philosophy and potentially a science.
Watson- said introspection was affected by bias. To measure behaviour, controlled lab experiments were used. Increasing scientific credibility of Psychology.
The Cognitive Revolution further increased the use of controlled, standardised methods in Psychology to measure human behaviour
Credible scientific methods used to investigate human biology such as EEG, PET scans, blood tests etc. can be used to also explain human behaviour, further increasing the scientific credibility of Psychology.
Summarise the Behaviourist Approach (Learning Theory)
They do not look at mental processes- The behaviourist approach is only interested in studying behaviour that can be observed and measured and ignores mental processes of the mind
They use controlled methods and behaviour that is measurable - Behaviourists study observable behaviour in labs where it can be precisely controlled and measured. This means behaviourism is highly scientific in its methods
They see Human learning same as animal learning - Therefore, rats and pigeons for instance, can replace humans in experiments.
Classical conditioning = learning by association
Operant conditioning = learning by reinforcement
What is Classical Conditioning?
Classical conditioning is learning by association. Neutral stimulus (a bell) produces a response that it would not normally produce (salivating) because of association
What is Operant Conditioning?
Operant conditioning is where behaviour is shaped by its consequences. If a rat is rewarded when it presses a lever, this behaviour is reinforced (more likely to be repeated i.e. is learned)
Evaluation of the Behaviourist Approach
Scientific - controlled lab studies
Reductionist - Looks at measurable behaviour - but aren’t humans more complicated? Humanists woukld argue that we need to look at all aspects of the human being and see humans as individuals.
Humans are far more complex than animals
Real-life Application - token economy/behavioural therapy etc
Cognitive psychologists say that you need to look at mental processes in order to explain behaviour and bahviourists do not
Ethical issues in animal experiments
Summarise Social Learning Theory (Learning Theory)
Learning occurs indirectly by watching others in a social context.
Behaviour that is seen to have positive consequences is more likely to be imitated by the observer (vicarious reinforcement)
There are important cognitive factors that come between stimulus and response – attention, retention, reproduction and motivation.
Children will imitate role models they identify with, i.e. see themselves as similar and want to be like.
Evaluation of Social Learning Theory
Underestimates the influence of biological factors e.g. testosterone in aggression
Over reliance on lab studies e.g. Bandura’s Bobo doll study - may lead to demand characteristics
By recognising and acknowledging cognitive factors play a part, it is less reductionist than the behaviourist view - it is also less deterministic as it suggests there are free will in some of our behaviour
Explains cultural differences in behaviour
What is imitation, identification and modelling (SLT)?
Imitation - copying the behaviours of others
Identification - When an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like the role model
Modelling - imitating the behaviour of a role model (observer) or demonstrating the specific behaviour that will be imitated by the observer (model)
What is Vicarious Reinforcement?
Reinforcement which is not directly experienced but occurs when an observers see someone else being reinforced for a behaviour - key factor in imitation
Summary of the Cognitive Approach
Cognitive psychologists study mental processes that were ignored by behaviourists.
Mental processes are inferred by drawing conclusions about what goes on in someone’s head from their behaviour in a lab study.
Cognitive psychologists use models to explain cognitive processes based on the idea that the human mind can be compared to a computer
Schema are packages of knowledge and expectations developed from experience and they help us process information more quickly.
As understanding of the brain has increased, cognitive neuroscience has emerged that tries to link brain areas to mental processes.
What is a Schema?
Schema are packages of knowledge and expectations developed from experience and they help us process information more quickly.
Evaluation of the Cognitive Approach
Scientific and objective methods e.g. cognitive neuroscience and lab studies
Machine reductionism - compares humans to computers - ignores emotion and individuality
Many studies that explore cognitive processes are lab studies (high internal validity) that use artificial material (low external validity)
Less deterministic than behavioural and biological approaches - soft determinism - we have some free will
Real life application - helped research into AI and robots
Summary of the Biological Approach
To understand behaviour we must look to biological structures and processes such as genes, neurochemistry and the nervous system
The mind and the brain are the same so that all thoughts, feelings and behaviour have a physical basis
Human and animal behaviour has evolved over generations to adapt to the environment – those genes that are adaptive are naturally selected and continue in future generations
Biologists study if certain behaviours are inherited by comparing concordance rates between identical (MZ) and non-identical (DZ) twins
Our inherited genetic make-up is heavily influenced by the environment, as seen in the relationship between genotype and phenotype
What are Genes?
They make up chromosomes - consist of DNA which codes the physical features of an organism and psychological features. They are inherited from parents to offspring.
What is Neurochemistry
Chemicals in the brain that regulate psychological functioning
What is a Genotype?
The particular genes that a person possesses
What is a Phenotype?
The characteristic of a person determined by both genes and the environment
What is Evolution?
The changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations
What is concordance rates in twin studies?
The extent to which both twins share the same characteristic
Evaluation of the Biological Approach
Scientific methods of investigation - fMRIs, EEGs, Family studies, Twin studies, drug test. Based on reliable data
Real-life applications - neurosurgery and drugs can help conditions such as depression and schizophrenia - supports the view that there is a biological cause
Reductionist (too simplistic - humans are more complex) and deterministic (or biology determines who we are) - humanists would say that there are many other factors to consider such as the experiences of the individual
It is hard to separate nature from nurture- hard to say how much of our behaviour is due to genes or environment
Summarise the Psychodynamic Approach
The Unconscious - The part of the mind that we are unaware of that directs behaviour
Tri-partite structure of personality - The personality consists of three parts; the id, ego and superego
Defence mechanisms - Unconscious strategies that the ego uses to manage the conflicts of the id and superego.
Psychosexual stages - Each psychosexual stage is associated with a conflict that must be resolved before the individual can successfully advance to the next stage.
Psychic determinism - Unconscious forces and drives are inborn and control or determine behaviour, all we say and do has a cause.
What are the Id, Ego and Superego
Id - Entirely unconscious - the id is made up of selfish, aggressive instincts that demand immediate gratification
Ego - The ‘reality check’ that balances the conflicting demands of the id and the superego
Superego - the conscience - moralistic part - how we ought to be
What are Defence mechanisms?
Unconscious strategies the ego uses to manage the conflict between the id and the superego
What are psychosexual stages?
5 developmental stages that all children pass through inclusing the Oral, Anal, Phalic, Latency and Genital. Any issues occuring in these stages may cause the person to become fixated with a stage e.g. oral fixation.
Evaluation of the Psychodynamic approach
Used case studies to support his theories e.g. Little Hans. However it is difficult to generalise case studies to the general population
Many of Freud’s concepts were untestable
Had a massive influence in psychology and inspired more research and development of talking therapies
Psychic determinism - says free will is an illusion - we are driven by our unconscious desires - humanists would disagree
Summary of the Humanist Approach
An approach to understanding behaviour that emphasises the importance of subjective experience and each person’s capacity for self-determination
Looked at how to help the person by looking at the gap between their ideal self and their actual self
Developed client-centred therapy
Humanism - what is Free Will?
Behaviour of human beings expresses choice and is not determined by biological or external forces
Humanism - what is self-actualisation
Top level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: to realise one’s true and full potential.
Humanism - what is congruence?
When the self-concept and ideal self are seen to broadly accord or match - this is an ideal place to be for a person
Humanism - what is conditions of worth?
Placing limits or boundaries on parents’ love of their children; e.g. ‘I will only love you if…’ - humanists believe that if a child is given conditional love rather than unconditional love, this will leave to low self-esteem
Humanism - what is the hierarchy of needs?
A five-levelled hierarchical sequence in which basic needs (e.g. hunger) must be satisfied before higher psychological needs (e.g. self-esteem and self-actualisation) can be achieved.
Evaluation of the Humanist Approach
Non reductionist and deterministic - humans have free will and are affected by many different factors - we have to look at humans as individuals
Lacks a scientific basis as it does not believe in quantitative methods - but it has helped to develop counselling methods
Which approaches are reductionist?
Biological reductionism
Behavioural - environmental reductionism
Cognitive - machine reductionism
Humanism - holism - not reductionist
What is the nature-nurture debate?
Biologists believe we are born with certain behaviours - we have inherited traits - they are in our genes
Behaviourists believe we learn behaviours from our environment - through association and reinforcement
Cognitive psychologists - believe that nature and nurture interact - we are born with schemas but are interaction with the environment adapts the schemas
Freud believed our behaviour was driven by biological urges and instincts, however our past has a strong influence on our behaviour
Which approaches are deterministic?
Biological - genes/inherited behaviour genetic determinism- no free will
Behaviourism - environmental determinsim - no free will
Freud - psychic determinism - no free will
Cognitive - soft determinism - we have choice - but it is limited to our experiences
Humanism - free will
