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Eduqas GCSE Electronics > Applying Electronics > Flashcards

Applying Electronics Flashcards

1
Q

What is the formula for the time delay (T) in a 555 monostable circuit?

A

T = 1.1 × R × C (where T is in seconds, R in ohms, C in farads)

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2
Q

How does increasing R or C affect the time delay in a monostable circuit?

A

Increases the time delay (T increases with larger R or C)

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3
Q

What is the difference between monostable and astable 555 timer circuits?

A

Monostable: Single pulse output. Astable: Continuous square wave output

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4
Q

What is the formula for frequency (f) of a 555 astable timer?

A

f = 1.44 / ((R₁ + 2R₂) × C)

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5
Q

How is mark-space ratio calculated for an astable timer?

A

Mark-space ratio = (R₁ + R₂) / R₂

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6
Q

What happens to capacitor voltage in an RC charging circuit over time?

A

Voltage increases exponentially towards supply voltage

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7
Q

What is the purpose of a Schmitt inverter in digital circuits?

A

Converts slow-changing analog signals to clean digital signals with hysteresis

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8
Q

How does a D-type flip-flop transfer data?

A

On rising edge of clock pulse, D input is copied to Q output

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9
Q

What is the function of a latch circuit using a D-type flip-flop?

A

Maintains output state (latches) until reset

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10
Q

How does a 1-bit counter using a D-type work?

A

Q̅ output fed back to D input, toggles output on each clock pulse

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11
Q

What is the main advantage of using counter ICs over discrete flip-flops?

A

Fewer connections needed, more compact circuits

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12
Q

How do you create a BCD counter from a binary counter?

A

Add NAND/AND gate to reset at binary 1010 (decimal 10)

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13
Q

What segments are lit to display ‘7’ on a 7-segment display?

A

Segments a, b, c

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14
Q

What is switch bounce and how is it eliminated?

A

Mechanical switch contacts bouncing; eliminated using Schmitt inverter or capacitor

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15
Q

What are the two threshold voltages in a Schmitt inverter called?

A

Upper trigger point (V₊) and lower trigger point (V₋)

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16
Q

Why use a transistor/MOSFET to interface logic to high-power outputs?

A

Logic gates can’t supply enough current for high-power devices

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17
Q

What is the main advantage of microcontrollers over hardwired logic?

A

Reprogrammable for different tasks without circuit changes

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18
Q

What flowchart symbol is used for decisions?

A

Diamond shape with Yes/No branches

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19
Q

How is a servo motor controlled by a microcontroller?

A

Pulse width modulation (1-2ms pulses every 20ms)

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20
Q

What is the formula for amplifier voltage gain?

A

G = Vout/Vin

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21
Q

How is bandwidth defined for an amplifier?

A

Frequency range where gain ≥ 70.7% of maximum gain

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22
Q

What happens to bandwidth as amplifier gain increases?

A

Bandwidth decreases (gain-bandwidth product is constant)

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23
Q

What is clipping distortion in amplifiers?

A

Output signal flattened at power supply voltage limits

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24
Q

What is the gain formula for non-inverting op-amp?

A

G = 1 + (Rf/R1)

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25
Q

What is the gain formula for inverting op-amp?

A

G = -Rf/Rin

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26
Q

How does a summing amplifier combine input signals?

A

Vout = -Rf × (V1/R1 + V2/R2 + …)

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27
Q

What are the main blocks in a PA system?

A

Microphone → Preamp → Mixer → Power amp → Speaker

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28
Q

What is the purpose of a pre-amplifier?

A

Boosts weak signals (e.g. from microphone) to usable levels

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29
Q

Why use dual power supplies for op-amps?

A

Allows output to swing both positive and negative

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30
Q

What is the typical saturation voltage for op-amps?

A

1-2V below power supply voltage

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31
Q

How do you calculate servo position from angle?

A

Position = (angle/1.2) + 75

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32
Q

What is the purpose of pull-up/pull-down resistors?

A

Ensure defined logic level when switch is open

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33
Q

How does a 4017 decade counter work?

A

10 outputs, activates one at a time sequentially

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34
Q

What is the difference between TTL and CMOS logic levels?

A

TTL: 0-0.8V=0, 2-5V=1; CMOS: 0-30%Vdd=0, 70-100%Vdd=1

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35
Q

What is the function of a decoder/driver in 7-segment displays?

A

Converts BCD input to segment activation signals

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36
Q

How do you create a 2-bit counter from D-type flip-flops?

A

Connect Q of first to clock of second, both with Q̅→D feedback

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37
Q

What is the advantage of MOSFET over transistor for high current?

A

Voltage-controlled, needs negligible gate current

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38
Q

How do you calculate transistor base resistor value?

A

Rb = (Vlogic - 0.7V)/Ib

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39
Q

What is the function of a comparator?

A

Compares two voltages, outputs digital signal indicating which is higher

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40
Q

What are the main components of a servo motor?

A

DC motor, gearbox, potentiometer, control circuit

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41
Q

What flowchart symbol represents a time delay?

A

Rectangle with “Delay” or “Wait”

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42
Q

How do you interface an LDR to a microcontroller?

A

Voltage divider circuit to analog input pin

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43
Q

What is the purpose of a truth table?

A

Shows all possible input combinations and corresponding outputs

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44
Q

How does a capacitor charge in an RC circuit?

A

Exponentially: fast initially, slowing as it approaches full charge

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45
Q

What determines the flash rate of an astable LED circuit?

A

Frequency set by R and C values in the astable

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46
Q

How do you calculate frequency from an oscilloscope trace?

A

f = 1/period (measure time for one complete cycle)

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47
Q

What is the difference between polarised and non-polarised capacitors?

A

Polarised must be connected with correct polarity

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48
Q

What precautions are needed with electrolytic capacitors?

A

Observe polarity, don’t exceed voltage rating

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49
Q

What is the purpose of a current-limiting resistor with LEDs?

A

Prevents excessive current that could damage LED

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50
Q

How do you calculate LED series resistor?

A

R = (Vsupply - Vled)/Iled

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51
Q

What is the function of a voltage divider?

A

Produces fraction of input voltage based on resistor ratio

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52
Q

How does a thermistor’s resistance change with temperature?

A

NTC: decreases with temp; PTC: increases with temp

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53
Q

What is the advantage of a Wheatstone bridge?

A

Accurate measurement of small resistance changes

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54
Q

How does a light-dependent resistor (LDR) work?

A

Resistance decreases with increasing light intensity

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55
Q

What is the purpose of a relay in control circuits?

A

Allows low-power circuit to switch high-power device

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56
Q

What are the main traffic light sequence states?

A

Red → Red+Amber → Green → Amber → Red

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57
Q

How does a monostable circuit produce a time delay?

A

Capacitor charges through resistor for fixed time period

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58
Q

What is the difference between analog and digital signals?

A

Analog: continuous values; Digital: discrete levels (0/1)

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59
Q

What is the purpose of a multiplexer?

A

Selects one of several inputs to route to single output

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60
Q

How does a bistable circuit differ from monostable?

A

Bistable has two stable states; monostable has one

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61
Q

What is the function of a shift register?

A

Stores and shifts data bits sequentially

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62
Q

How does a DAC (Digital-to-Analog Converter) work?

A

Converts binary numbers to proportional voltage levels

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63
Q

What is the purpose of an ADC (Analog-to-Digital Converter)?

A

Converts continuous analog signals to digital values

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64
Q

What is hysteresis in a Schmitt trigger?

A

Difference between upper and lower switching thresholds

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65
Q

How does optical isolation protect circuits?

A

Uses LED-phototransistor pair to prevent electrical connection

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66
Q

What is the function of a sample-and-hold circuit?

A

Captures and maintains analog voltage for ADC processing

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67
Q

How does PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) control power?

A

Varies average power by changing pulse width

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68
Q

What is the advantage of using a Darlington pair?

A

Very high current gain (hFE = hFE1 × hFE2)

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69
Q

How do you calculate power in a DC circuit?

A

P = V × I

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70
Q

What is Kirchhoff’s Current Law?

A

Sum of currents entering node equals sum leaving

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71
Q

What is Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law?

A

Sum of voltage drops in loop equals supply voltage

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72
Q

What is the time constant (τ) in an RC circuit?

A

τ = R × C (time to reach 63% of final voltage)

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73
Q

How does negative feedback affect op-amp performance?

A

Improves stability, increases bandwidth, reduces distortion

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74
Q

What is virtual earth in op-amp circuits?

A

Inverting input held at same potential as non-inverting (often 0V)

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75
Q

How does a differentiator op-amp circuit work?

A

Output proportional to rate of change of input

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76
Q

How does an integrator op-amp circuit work?

A

Output proportional to integral of input over time

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77
Q

What is CMRR in op-amps?

A

Common Mode Rejection Ratio - ability to reject common signals

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78
Q

What is slew rate in op-amps?

A

Maximum rate of output voltage change (V/μs)

79
Q

What is the purpose of decoupling capacitors?

A

Filter power supply noise, provide local energy storage

80
Q

How does a crystal oscillator work?

A

Uses piezoelectric crystal for precise frequency generation

81
Q

What is the function of a voltage regulator?

A

Maintains constant output voltage despite input/load changes

82
Q

What are the main types of voltage regulator?

A

Linear (series/shunt) and switching

83
Q

What is the advantage of a switching regulator?

A

Higher efficiency, less heat dissipation

84
Q

How does a bridge rectifier work?

A

Converts AC to DC using four diodes

85
Q

What is the purpose of a smoothing capacitor?

A

Reduces ripple in rectified DC

86
Q

How do you calculate ripple voltage?

A

Vripple = Iload/(f × C)

87
Q

What is the function of a zener diode?

A

Voltage regulation by maintaining constant reverse voltage

88
Q

How does a thyristor differ from a transistor?

A

Latching device - stays on once triggered until current drops

89
Q

What is the purpose of a triac?

A

AC power control, conducts in both directions when triggered

90
Q

How does a DIAC work?

A

Bidirectional trigger device for triacs

91
Q

What is the function of a optocoupler?

A

Isolates two circuits while allowing signal transfer

92
Q

How does a VDR (Voltage Dependent Resistor) work?

A

Resistance decreases with increasing voltage

93
Q

What is the purpose of a fuse?

A

Protects circuit by melting when current exceeds rating

94
Q

How does a circuit breaker differ from a fuse?

A

Resettable overcurrent protection device

95
Q

What are the main safety rules when working with electronics?

A

Disconnect power, use insulated tools, one hand rule, discharge capacitors

96
Q

What is the purpose of a heat sink?

A

Dissipates heat from components to prevent overheating

97
Q

How do you identify resistor values using color codes?

A

Bands indicate digits and multiplier (e.g. brown-black-red = 1kΩ)

98
Q

What is the difference between axial and radial lead components?

A

Axial: leads at ends; Radial: leads on one side

99
Q

How do you test a diode with a multimeter?

A

Conducts in one direction (forward bias), not the other

100
Q

What is the purpose of a logic probe?

A

Quickly check logic levels (high/low/pulse) in digital circuits

101
Q

How does an oscilloscope display signals?

A

Voltage vs time graph using electron beam and deflection plates

102
Q

What are the main oscilloscope controls?

A

Timebase, voltage/div, trigger, coupling

103
Q

How do you measure frequency with an oscilloscope?

A

Count divisions for one cycle, calculate 1/period

104
Q

What is the advantage of digital storage oscilloscopes?

A

Can capture and store transient events

105
Q

What is the purpose of a function generator?

A

Produces test waveforms (sine, square, triangle etc.)

106
Q

How does a spectrum analyzer work?

A

Displays signal amplitude vs frequency

107
Q

What is the difference between serial and parallel data transmission?

A

Serial: one bit at a time; Parallel: multiple bits simultaneously

108
Q

What are the advantages of serial communication?

A

Fewer wires, longer distance, less interference

109
Q

What is the purpose of a UART?

A

Converts parallel data to serial and vice versa

110
Q

How does I²C communication work?

A

Two-wire (SDA/SCL) synchronous serial protocol

111
Q

What is the advantage of SPI over I²C?

A

Faster speed, full duplex communication

112
Q

What is the purpose of a watchdog timer?

A

Resets system if software fails to operate correctly

113
Q

How does a voltage follower op-amp circuit work?

A

Gain=1, high input impedance, low output impedance

114
Q

What is the purpose of a Wheatstone bridge in strain gauges?

A

Measures small resistance changes precisely

115
Q

How does a piezoelectric transducer work?

A

Generates voltage when mechanically stressed

116
Q

What is the function of a Hall effect sensor?

A

Detects magnetic fields by measuring Hall voltage

117
Q

How does an RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector) work?

A

Measures temperature through resistance change

118
Q

What is the advantage of a thermocouple?

A

Wide temperature range, rugged construction

119
Q

How does a capacitive proximity sensor work?

A

Detects objects by measuring capacitance changes

120
Q

What is the principle of inductive proximity sensing?

A

Detects metal objects through eddy current effects

121
Q

How does an ultrasonic distance sensor work?

A

Measures time-of-flight for sound pulses

122
Q

What is the purpose of a PID controller?

A

Provides precise control using proportional, integral, derivative terms

123
Q

How does PWM control motor speed?

A

Varies average voltage by changing pulse width

124
Q

What is the advantage of brushless DC motors?

A

Higher efficiency, longer life, less maintenance

125
Q

How does a stepper motor work?

A

Moves in discrete steps when windings are energized sequentially

126
Q

What is the purpose of an H-bridge circuit?

A

Allows DC motor control in both directions

127
Q

How does pulse counting work in digital circuits?

A

Counts rising/falling edges to measure events or speed

128
Q

What is the function of a sample rate in data acquisition?

A

Determines how often analog signals are measured

129
Q

How does oversampling improve ADC resolution?

A

Averages multiple samples to reduce noise

130
Q

What is the purpose of anti-aliasing filters?

A

Prevents false signals by removing frequencies above Nyquist rate

131
Q

How does a phase-locked loop (PLL) work?

A

Matches output frequency/phase to reference signal

132
Q

What is the advantage of surface mount technology?

A

Smaller components, higher density, better high-frequency performance

133
Q

How do you identify IC pin numbers?

A

Count anti-clockwise from notch/mark (pin 1 is top-left)

134
Q

What is the purpose of a breadboard?

A

Allows temporary circuit construction without soldering

135
Q

How does stripboard differ from breadboard?

A

Permanent connections made by soldering on copper strips

136
Q

What are the main steps in PCB design?

A

Schematic capture, component placement, routing, fabrication

137
Q

How does wave soldering work?

A

PCB passed over molten solder wave for mass production

138
Q

What is the purpose of solder mask on PCBs?

A

Insulates copper traces, prevents solder bridges

139
Q

How does reflow soldering work?

A

Solder paste melted in oven to attach SMD components

140
Q

What are the main types of test equipment?

A

Multimeter, oscilloscope, logic analyzer, signal generator

141
Q

How do you calculate total resistance in series?

A

Rtotal = R1 + R2 + …

142
Q

How do you calculate total resistance in parallel?

A

1/Rtotal = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + …

143
Q

What is Thevenin’s theorem?

A

Any linear network can be replaced by equivalent voltage source and series resistance

144
Q

How does Norton’s theorem differ from Thevenin’s?

A

Uses equivalent current source and parallel resistance

145
Q

What is superposition in circuit analysis?

A

Total response is sum of responses to individual sources

146
Q

How do you calculate power in AC circuits?

A

P = Vrms × Irms × cosφ (real power)

147
Q

What is the purpose of power factor correction?

A

Reduces reactive power, improves efficiency

148
Q

How does a transformer work?

A

Transfers energy between circuits via electromagnetic induction

149
Q

What is the turns ratio in a transformer?

A

Np/Ns = Vp/Vs = Is/Ip (for ideal transformer)

150
Q

How do you calculate RMS voltage from peak?

A

Vrms = Vpeak/√2 (for sine waves)

151
Q

What is the difference between real and apparent power?

A

Real: does useful work; Apparent: product of V and I

152
Q

How does three-phase power differ from single-phase?

A

Three alternating currents 120° out of phase

153
Q

What is the advantage of star connection in 3-phase?

A

Provides two voltage levels (phase and line)

154
Q

How does delta connection differ from star?

A

No neutral, only line voltages available

155
Q

What is the purpose of earthing in electrical systems?

A

Safety - provides path for fault currents

156
Q

How does an RCD (Residual Current Device) work?

A

Detects imbalance between live and neutral currents

157
Q

What are the standard UK wiring colors?

A

Live: brown; Neutral: blue; Earth: green/yellow

158
Q

How does a varistor protect against voltage spikes?

A

Resistance drops sharply above threshold voltage

159
Q

What is the purpose of an isolation transformer?

A

Prevents DC transfer while allowing AC signals

160
Q

How does a UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply) work?

A

Provides backup power during outages

161
Q

What are the main battery types?

A

Primary (disposable), secondary (rechargeable)

162
Q

How does lithium-ion differ from NiMH batteries?

A

Higher energy density, no memory effect

163
Q

What is the purpose of a charge controller?

A

Prevents overcharging/discharging of batteries

164
Q

How does maximum power point tracking work?

A

Optimizes solar panel output under varying conditions

165
Q

What are the main renewable energy sources?

A

Solar, wind, hydro, geothermal, biomass

166
Q

How does a grid-tied solar inverter work?

A

Converts DC to AC synchronized with mains

167
Q

What is the purpose of net metering?

A

Credits for excess power fed back to grid

168
Q

How does energy harvesting work?

A

Captures ambient energy (light, vibration, RF etc.)

169
Q

What are the main IoT communication protocols?

A

WiFi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, LoRa, NB-IoT

170
Q

How does MQTT protocol work?

A

Lightweight publish-subscribe messaging for IoT

171
Q

What is the advantage of LoRa for IoT?

A

Long range, low power wireless communication

172
Q

How does blockchain enhance IoT security?

A

Decentralized, tamper-proof transaction records

173
Q

What are the main Industry 4.0 technologies?

A

IoT, AI, robotics, cloud computing, big data

174
Q

How does digital twin technology work?

A

Virtual model that mirrors physical system

175
Q

What is the purpose of predictive maintenance?

A

Uses data to predict equipment failures before they occur

176
Q

How does augmented reality assist technicians?

A

Overlays digital information on real-world view

177
Q

What are the main cybersecurity threats to IoT?

A

Malware, DDoS, data breaches, unauthorized access

178
Q

How does encryption protect data?

A

Scrambles information so only authorized parties can read

179
Q

What is the principle of public key cryptography?

A

Uses key pairs (public/private) for secure communication

180
Q

How does a digital signature work?

A

Mathematical scheme for verifying authenticity

181
Q

What are the main ethical issues in electronics?

A

Privacy, data ownership, environmental impact, obsolescence

182
Q

How can e-waste be responsibly managed?

A

Recycling, refurbishment, proper disposal

183
Q

What is RoHS compliance?

A

Restriction of Hazardous Substances in electronics

184
Q

How does WEEE directive affect electronics?

A

Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment recycling requirements

185
Q

What is the purpose of life cycle assessment?

A

Evaluates environmental impact of product from creation to disposal

186
Q

How can electronics design be more sustainable?

A

Energy efficiency, recyclable materials, modular design

187
Q

What are the emerging trends in electronics?

A

Flexible electronics, quantum computing, bioelectronics

188
Q

How does memristor technology work?

A

Non-volatile memory with resistance that depends on history

189
Q

What is the potential of spintronics?

A

Uses electron spin rather than charge for information

190
Q

How does photonic computing differ from electronic?

A

Uses light instead of electrons for processing

191
Q

What are the challenges of quantum computing?

A

Qubit stability, error correction, scaling

192
Q

How does neuromorphic computing work?

A

Mimics brain’s neural structure for efficient processing

193
Q

What is the potential of biodegradable electronics?

A

Reduces e-waste through environmentally friendly materials

Eduqas GCSE Electronics (4 decks)

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