Applied wildlife

Question 1

What is an ecologically important site?

Answer 1

An area of land and/or sea especially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity, and of natural and associated cultural resources, and managed through legal or other effective means (IUCN).

Question 2

The different types of specialised areas

Answer 2

Designations include:

Special Area of Conservation (SAC) – European
-SACs support internationally important habitats and/or species listed in the EC Habitats Directive

Special Protection Area (SPA) – European
-SPAs are sites identified as international importance for the breeding, feeding, wintering or the migration of rare and vulnerable species of birds found within EU countries

Site of Special Scientific Interest - UK
-Is a formal domestic designation to an area that is of particular interest to science – flora, fauna, geological or physiological features

Ramsar Site - Global
-Designated under the Ramsar convention – an international agreement for the conservation and sustainable use of global wetlands

The Colne Esturay in Essex has all of these areas within it.

Question 3

Importance for migration in birds

Answer 3

A network of suitable wetland sites is particularly important to migratory animals

Migration is the regular seasonal movement of birds and wildlife from one part of the world to another and back again

Migration is a form of adaptation. Birds migrate to survive but migration is generally the highest cause of mortality in birds

Types of migration:

Permanent residents – do not migrate

Short-distance migrants – small movements such as higher and lower elevations

Medium distance migrants – up to a few hundred miles

Long distance migrants – between breeding and wintering sites – often north and south along a flyway

Generally to and from areas of low or decreasing resources to those of high or increasing resources
Across their flyway, migrating birds rely on a chain of staging sites where they can feed, rest and shelter
Most birds migrate and they often take direct risky routes in order to conserve energy exposing them to threats such as predators, storms and disorientation
Other species also migrate…name some examples. Then bring in bat migration…if suitable…or a bit later

Question 4

Flyways of the world

Answer 4

The routes that migratory birds take on an annual basis are known as flyways. There are 9 major flyways around the world and international cooperation is across their range is essential to conserve and protect migratory birds and the habitats upon which they depend.

Question 5

Importance of uk wetlands to migrating birds

Answer 5

The UK sits long the East Atlantic flyway; an important ecological connection between breeding grounds in the arctic with wintering sites in Western Europe and along the western seaboard of Africa (Roomen et al., 2005).

Generally to and from areas of low or decreasing resources to those of high or increasing resources
Across their flyway, migrating birds rely on a chain of staging sites where they can feed, rest and shelter
Most birds migrate and they often take direct risky routes in order to conserve energy exposing them to threats such as predators, storms and disorientation
Migration is generally the highest cause of mortality in birds.

Question 6

Importance of wetlands for migration - example

Answer 6

Located along the Atlantic coasts, the wetland complex comprises sand-dunes, swamps, small islands and shallow coastal waters

The vast expanse of marsh and seagrass beds together with windblown sediment and a permeant upwelling provides a ecosystem rich in nutrients and organic matter

A variety of migratory birds spend the winter there – the concentration of shorebirds represents 30-70% of the entire population of the ‘East Atlantic Flyway’

The World Heritage Site is a major breeding site for migratory birds including flamingos, pelicans and terns

Breeding largely occurs on sandbanks with the surrounding waters some of the richest fishing waters in Western Africa

Question 7

Threats to protected sites

Answer 7

Climate change

Illegal killing

habitat loss and degradation

Disturbance

Fragmentation

Development

Invasive species

Hunting

Pollution

Question 8

Threats – climate change

Why is it an Issue for migratory Birds

Answer 8

Migration and movement between sites is being impacted by anthropogenic influences but primarily habitat loss and climate change:

Climate change is resulting in more birds overwintering in their summer grounds and some species do not reach their traditional overwintering sites…a phenomenon called Short-stopping.

Short-stopping describes spatio-temporal changes in migratory species, specifically:

Shortened autumn migration resulting in a wintering distribution closer to breeding grounds;
A shortened spring migration resulting in a breeding distribution closer to wintering grounds and;
A delay in autumn migration leading to a perceived reduced abundance in some part of the winter range.

Question 9

What is the main cause of wildlife decline?

Answer 9

Habitat loss due to the UK using a huge amount of land for agricultural uses.

Reduced quality of habitat

Fragmentation

Metapopulations

Question 10

Uses of Agriculture in the UK

Answer 10

Agriculture (63.1%; 71% for UK)
Forestry, open land and water (20.1%) Residential gardens (4.9%)

What is being grown?
40+ % grazing – livestock
13% woodland
20% Arable - cereals

Question 11

Simple solution in habitat loss

Answer 11

Simple Solution – reverse Agriculture

“The UK is not self-sufficient in food production; it imports 48% of the total food consumed and the proportion is rising. Therefore, as a food-trading nation, the UK relies on both imports and a thriving agricultural sector to feed itself and drive economic growth” – UK Global Food Security

Question 12

Land Sparing

Answer 12

Species or Targets are incompatible with sharing with agriculture

“restoring or creating non-farmland habitat in agricultural landscapes at the expense of field-level agricultural production - for example, woodland, natural grassland, wetland, and meadow on arable land.”
IPBES (c2023)

Critique:

1. Depeopling
2. Food production values
3. Society expectations,
   cultural values
4. Cost – e.g. new ELMS Landscape options

Question 13

Land Sharing

Answer 13

Species or Targets are compatible with sharing with agriculture

“A situation where low-yield farming enables biodiversity to be maintained within agricultural landscapes.”
IPBES (c2023)

“Land Sharing involves a patchwork of low-intensity agriculture incorporating natural features such as ponds and hedgerows, rather than keeping agriculture and wilderness separate” Grass et al., 2019

CRITIQUE:

Food production loss in good land

Too small scale

Hasn’t worked (more to come)

Cost effectiveness

Question 14

Class conclusion on land sparing and sharing

Answer 14

Conclusion from class discussion:
Sparing consistently outperforms sharing based on evidence and costs and theoretical predictions. Implementation of land sparing not so easy – must prevent runaway agricultural intensification. In reality may need both approaches, but status quo of Land Sharing AES schemes will need to significantly improve and funding for Land sparing needed to meet targets. Must better involve people who live in rural landscapes to achieve success.

Question 15

Sharing Vs sparing

Answer 15

Land Sharing: A situation where ‘low-yield farming enables biodiversity to be maintained within the agricultural landscape’. Land Sparing: Where ‘high-yielding agriculture is practiced, requiring a smaller area of land to attain the same yields and therefore leaving greater areas of natural habitat untouched.

Sharing pros:

Can deliver better food production, BUT only if high quality Agri-environmental schemes

Sharing Cons:

Not cost effective, based on results, species specific outcomes - generalists win, high yield loss.

Compare:

Integrate both approach

Requires both approaches to capture all species.

Spare pros:

• Intensify farming - release habitats.
• Cheaper (79% production; 48% ££ compared to sharing)
• works -on average better (richness)
• in theory -winner )yes but evidence is weak)

Spare Cons:

• Not much evidence
• Runaway investment, more farms no sparing happens

-context dependent
-species specific - specialists win

Question 16

Origin of protected sites

Answer 16

Idea of protected sites originated with Charles Rothschild (1877-1923)

Victorian era approach to wildlife
– catch it, stuff it, pin it… Study it

Concerns were growing about the
effect of this practice on
individual species

Rothschild was also
concerned about effects
on habitats

Between 1912 -15 conducted a survey In 1916 produced an inventory of 284 potential UK “nature reserves”

“The cathedrals of nature” – became the first protected sites in the UK and led to the formation of the Society for the Promotion of Nature Reserves - now The
Royal Society of Wildlife Trusts.

Question 17

Nature reserve selection – theory and practice
“Ratcliffe Criteria”

Answer 17

10 main criteria that have become the basis of reserve selection:

size (extent)
* diversity,
* naturalness,
* rarity,
* fragility,
* typicalness,
* recorded history,
* position in an ecological unit,
* potential value
* landscape/intrinsic appeal

Question 18

Rarity / Fragility and what makes things rare

Answer 18

The presence of even one
rare species gives a site
higher value

Don’t overlook rare
landforms, natural processes
– erosion, deposition, aquatic
features

Some species have
become rare, some
species are naturally rare,
some are not rare for long
Rare species may have
been common once…

Question 19

Nature Recovery def

Answer 19

“To restore and secure the long term sustainability of the ecological and physical
processes that underpin the
way ecosystems work…to
provide clean water, climate
regulation and crop pollination as well as providing habitats
for wildlife”

Question 20

What is a resilient and coherent ecological network

Answer 20

A coherent ecological network is one that has all the elements necessary to achieve its overall objectives; the components are chosen to be complementary and
mutually reinforcing so that the value of the whole
network is greater than the sum of its parts.

A resilient ecological network is one that is capable of
absorbing, resisting or recovering from disturbances and damage caused by natural perturbations and human activities (including climate change) while continuing to meet its overall objectives of supporting biodiversity and
providing ecosystem services.

Question 21

Components of an Ecological Network: Core areas

Answer 21

Areas of high nature conservation value
which form the heart of the network. They contain habitats that are rare or important because of the wildlife they support or the ecosystem services they provide. They generally have the highest concentrations of species or support rare species. Core areas provide places within which species
can thrive and from which they can disperse to other parts of the network. They include protected wildlife sites and other semi-natural areas of high ecological
quality.

Question 22

Corridors and ‘stepping stones’

Answer 22

These are spaces that improve the functional connectivity between core areas, enabling species to move between them to feed, disperse, migrate or reproduce. Connectivity need not come from linear, continuous habitats; a
number of small sites may act as ‘stepping stones’ across which certain species can move between core areas. Equally, a land mosaic between sites that allows species to move is effectively an ecological corridor.

Question 23

Restoration areas

Answer 23

These are areas where measures are planned to restore or create new high
value areas (which will ultimately become ‘core areas’) so that ecological
functions and species populations can be restored. They are often situated
so as to complement, connect or enhance existing core areas.

Question 24

Buffer zones

Answer 24

These are areas that closely
surround core areas,
restoration areas, ‘stepping
stones’ and ecological
corridors, and protect them
from adverse impacts from
the wider environment.

Question 25

Sustainable use areas – ‘softening the
matrix’

Answer 25

These are areas within the wider landscape
focused on the sustainable use of natural
resources and appropriate economic
activities, together with the maintenance of
ecosystem services
Set up appropriately, they help to ‘soften the
matrix’ outside the network and make it
more permeable and less hostile to wildlife,
including self- sustaining populations of
species that are dependent upon, or at least
tolerant of, certain forms of agriculture.
There is overlap in the functions of buffer
zones and sustainable use areas, but the
latter are less clearly demarcated than
buffers, with a greater variety of land uses.

Question 26

Different types of protected areas

Answer 26

International designations:

MCZ Marine Conservation Zone

SPA Special Protection Area

SAC Special Area of Conservation

Ramsar Protected wetland site

National designations:

NNR National Nature Reserve

AONB Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty

Local designations:

LNR Local Nature Reserve

LoWS / LoGS Local Wildlife Site

SRV / RNR Special Roadside Verge

Question 27

Some natural processes

Answer 27

Grazing / trampling
* Erosion / soil accumulation
* Flooding / storm damage
* Water storage / cycling
* Predation
* Decay

Question 28

Implications for reserve management

Answer 28

Managing reserves in the short term may
involve:
* Day to day maintenance of features and
processes
– grazing, access
* Weekly or yearly management of the site
– Coppicing in winter, surveying in
summer
* Long term habitat improvement or
restoration
– Scrapes, removal of invasive species,
land purchase

Question 29

If small populations are in trouble – should we intervene to help them?

Answer 29

Why should we save them?
-We like them – the beauty of nature – -preserve that “Value”
-They have value – services or utility – wise use
-RIVET model - unpredictable – avoid negative effects

-Let nature decide?
-Restore habitats – species ID irrelevant
-Compassion in conservation

Question 30

Philosophy of interventions – takes all sorts

Answer 30

1st:

-Beyond utility
-principled responsibility

2nd:

-Animals suffer
-Duty to prevent
-De-predation movement

3rd:

-Not animals fault
-Individuals matter
-Species less so

Question 31

Forest recovery and flora diversity

Answer 31

High deer numbers are causing significant ecological damage to Scotland. They are preventing woodland regeneration and expansion, and damaging peatlands – both of which play a vital role in storing carbon and removing it from the atmosphere.

Natural and semi-natural habitats are unable to regenerate to sustain their ground cover and the diversity of plant species

Local populations of important species (animal or plant) are in decline

Important Earth science features are being eroded

360-400 Thousand Red deer
200-250 Thousand Roe deer
25 Thousand Fallow
10 Thousand Sika
Some estimates over 1 Million deer

Question 32

Muntjac, Orchids and Nightingales in England

Answer 32

Concern that muntjac partial to rare plants

But evidence fairly thin – see Cooke

Annual effects small – over time reduce plant abundance

Deer compete with Nightingales

Requires “ruthless” culling to reduce to stationary growth

Muntjac are small and browse the lower layer of underbrush where nightingales reside.

Question 33

Problems to consider with deer culling

Answer 33

Deer have value – Utilitarian to landowner and hunters

Big Incentive in Scotland to keep herd large

Predators – not enough time or viable Kirkland et al., 2021

Different values amongst communities – check out recent Assynt conflict with John Muir Trust

Ruthless culls – unsavoury amongst many including hunters

Restoration/Recovery even at high abundance of deer

Question 34

Non-native species effects

Answer 34

Competition, herbivory, economic damage, genetic effects, predation, habitat alteration, disease

One of largest effects on UK and Global biodiversity

£5-13 BILLION over last 40 years in the UK

Technical and Financial consequences of control – ONCE established

Is Ruthless action better – don’t allow establishment

Question 35

History of Predators in the UK

Answer 35

Wolves are Native to Britain – 10K years
-1500s – wolves considered a danger to travel
-Island burial to prevent grave digging.

last Scottish wolf was killed by Sir Ewen Cameron of Lochiel in 1680 in Perthshire; England’s earlier and possibly in Kent

Lynx extinct much earlier – 7th Centuary

13,000 brown bear 7K years ago

Badgers (Meles meles) – Habitat, culls and sport “baiting” – they were “uncommon”. 100%+ recovery throughout 1980s to present due to protection.

Pine Marten (Martes martes) – largely extinct England & Wales 1915; Expansion and relocation helped recover – some rogue reintros – London recently!

Red fox (Vulpes vulpes) – no large declines – “protected” by hound hunt interests. Since 1960s increased, then stable – recent decline. Extensive predator control

Question 36

History of zoos

Answer 36

(19th century) They used to be a place for public amusement. Mainly being menageries with private collections with a taxonomic theme. Concerns: Species husbandry and species propagation.

(20th century) Zoological park - living museum. Concerns: cooperative species management and professional development.

(21st century) Conservation centre - Environmental resource centre. Concerns: Holistic conservation and organisational networks.

Question 37

What are the 4 main roles of modern zoos?

Answer 37

Modern zoos have four roles: education, research, recreation, conservation

Question 38

What is Ex and In situ conservation?

Answer 38

Latin for “in” and “out” of place, in situ and ex situ describes the location for wildlife. In situ refers to the animal’s original home and ex situ describes conservation in which the animal has been moved. Each type of conservation has it’s own benefits, depending on the wildlife’s needs.

Question 39

What is utilitarianism and a model of it?

Answer 39

In ethical philosophy, utilitarianism is a family of normative ethical theories that prescribe actions that maximize happiness and well-being for all affected individuals.

UK Environment Agency Fishing Licence
~ Fish stamps
~ wardens
~ habitat improvement and stocking

UK/European game management – rear & release

Europe chose game supplementation and feudal land ownership while US chose pubic land and goods & habitat

+ves and –ves of this claimed Utilitarian model

~ not enough policy – too much self policing
~ See recent review – must harness more +ves for conservation – currently not a given that it’s a “net gain”

Question 40

How can trophy hunting be good for conservation?

Answer 40

Along with some governments, they claim that “well-managed” trophy hunting is an effective conservation tool, which can also help local communities. This argument depends on part on the generation of significant income from the trophy hunters, which, it is claimed, can then be reinvested into conservation activities.

Question 41

Summary 1 for conservation models and celeb misinformation

Answer 41

Three main conservation models

Applied intervention may lean on more than one – i.e. Intrinsic values & Utilitarian values are not mutually exclusive

This applies philosophically and in application – e.g. see mixed budget for funding African game reserve

Conservation has many tricky problems & conflicts

New research area at Interface of ecology and social sciences – solving conflicts (needs more social scientists)

Mis-information – the idea that opinion matters – is rife. Extinction does not care about opinions

Fishing, Farming, Hunting and lethal interventions attract Celebrity ire.

Question 42

Summary 2 for conservation models and celeb misinformation

Answer 42

Science then is only one facet of policy

Communication of evidence as or more important – no guarantee evidence will “win” – see support for UK hunting Trophy Ban despite widespread fishing and hunting utilitarian use in the UK

Compassionate conservation gaining ground – likely to hasten extinction (local and global)

BUT – we need more ethics in Conservation (new book “Treated Like Animals”)

Case by case success of utilitarian model – not all successful

Please read and study widely – information heavy topic