Application of Ethics: Animal Ethics Flashcards
What are blood sports?
any sport that involves animals being killed or hurt to make the people watching or taking part feel excitements and being entertainment for human pleasure.
Name some examples of blood sports
Bear baiting
Bull baiting
Cock fighting
What does instrumental mean?
for human use
Give some arguments supporting bull fighting
-cultural/traditional
-skill fighting
-pragmatic argument
Explain the ‘cultural/traditional’ argument for bull fighting
-it’s deeply rooted in spanish culture representing centuries of tradition and heritage
-to condemn it outright risks disregarding cultural differences
Explain the ‘skillfighting ’ argument for bull fighting
-it is not just entertainment, it represents the age-old struggle between humanity and nature
Explain the ‘pragmatic’ argument for bull fighting
-bulls raised for fighting would be slaughtered regardless, so it may seem irrelevant to debate how they die
Give some arguments against bull fighting
-inherent cruelty
-unfair fight
-ethical implications
Explain the ‘inherent cruelty’ argument against bull fighting
-bullfighting is often viewed as one of the most barbaric forms of animal exploitation still practised legally. The process involves significant suffering for the bulk which is goaded, weakened, and repeatedly injured before it eventually collapses from
exhaustion or its wounds.
Explain the ‘unfair fight ’ argument against bull fighting
-The idea that bullfighting is a fair contest between the bull and the matador is misleading. The matador has the advantage of weapons and training.
Explain the ‘ethical implications’ argument against bull fighting
-Viewing the matador as a hero or artist ignores the suffering inflicted on the animal.
Give some examples of blood sports as unethical
-bulls who are used on bullfighting are deliberately weakened before the fights by being drugged, horns shaved, sandbags dropped on their backs, vaseline rubbed into their eyes. The tortured bulls never stand a chance against the matador, who tries to kill them slowly with repeated stabbing.
-Animals who are used in dogfighting and cockfighting are typically kept chained outdoors in horrific conditions. They are starved, drugged, and beaten to make them aggressive.If they don’t die in the fighting ring, the “losers” are killed by being drowned, burned, or shot.
-Animals who are used in racing-including horses, greyhounds, and dogs used in dog-sled racing-are often drugged to mask sickness and injury and are forced to race. Between races, they are typically confined for most of the day to cramped stalls or crates
-Hunting and fishing are unnecessary, violent forms of “entertainment” that tear animal families apart and leave countless animals dead, orphaned, and/or badly injured.
What is sentience?
-being consciously aware of surroundings
-having emotions and feelings
What is speciesism?
Giving preference to our own species over another, in the absence of morally relative differences
What does Peter Singer believe about speciesism?
-He believes that animals have personhood
-Peter Singer says that if it’s not okay to do it to a human then it’s not okay to do it to an animal
What is the argument about treating animals differently based on intelligence?
If it’s clearly wrong to treat members of our own species differently based on intelligence, it should also be wrong to treat members of other species differently based on intelligence.
-meat eaters might have an opposing argument to this
-similarly, slave owners might have an opposing argument to this
-this shows how wrong it is do judge based on intelligence
What is intensive farming?
A form of mass production where lots of labour is used to increase the amount of crops or animals produced in a specific area of land. The use of large amounts of pesticides for crops, and of medication for animal stocks is common.
What is vegetarianism?
The practise of abstaining from the consumption of meat
What is veganism?
The practise of abstaining from the consumption of animal products
What are some facts to do with intensive farming?
-51% of greenhouse emissions are caused by animal agriculture
-By going vegan, a person can save 210,000 gallons of water
What are some reasons for using animals for food?
-Humans have always eaten meat,
why stop now?
-It’s tradition to eat meat
-Animals aren’t sentient beings, not like humans
-Eating meat is essential for human survival
-Ethical meat eating is possible
Explain the ‘Humans have always eaten meat, why stop now?’ argument for using animals for food
-humans have included meat in their diet for thousands of years
Explain the ‘It’s tradition to eat meat’ argument for using animals for food
Because our bodies are so used to the taste and texture of meat, and so many of our other traditions (think Thanksgiving or Christmas dinners) are based around meat, this is a justification for eating meat.
Explain the ‘Animals aren’t sentient beings, not like humans’ argument for using animals for food
This argues that animals don’t suffer, at least not like humans, because they aren’t as aware of their surroundings.
Explain the ‘Eating meat is essential for human survival’ argument for using animals for food
-Meat is an essential source of nutrients and calories
-Meat is a ready source of protein
Explain the ‘Ethical meat eating is possible’ argument for using animals for food.
There’s a wide availability of free-range eggs or grass-fed beef in stores, which can help to alleviate many concerns
What are some reasons against using animals for food?
-animals are sentient, intelligent creatures
-meat eating is no longer sustainable
-livestock contribute massively to CO2 emissions
-plants can provide us with essential nutrients
-humans should take the moral high ground
Explain the ‘animals are sentient, intelligent creatures ’ argument against using animals for food.
Animals might not have achieved the same level of community or civilization that humanity has this should not diminish their intelligence and their ability to feel. Animals not only feel pain but have memories, family connections, and connections to humans too.
Explain the ‘meat eating is no longer sustainable’ argument against using animals for food.
The meat industry has been industrialized, and it uses masses of land, grain, and water to produce meat for our supermarket shelves. The problem is that with more meat-eaters, the land where beef can be reared or where chickens or pigs are kept is fast diminishing.
Explain the ‘livestock contribute massively to CO2 emissions’ argument against using animals for food.
Methane gas is a by-product of raising animals (particularly cattle), and eating red meat has a large carbon footprint that’s not always obvious to consumers. Cutting down on red meat lowers the demand for meat and can contribute towards a lower carbon footprint and fewer CO2 emissions.
Explain the ‘plants can provide us with essential nutrients ’ argument against using animals for food.
Despite how conditioned we are to consuming meat, our bodies don’t need us to keep eating meat to survive. In fact, we can find all of the essential nutrients that we traditionally source from meat in many different plants and plant-based products. For instance, Soy is a huge source of plant-based protein.
Explain the ‘humans should take the moral high ground’ argument against using animals for food.
Rather than using our intelligence as a right to kill other creatures, the argument is that we can use our intelligence as a force for positive change and a move towards sustainability and improved animal welfare.
What are the different uses of animal cloning?
-to make pharmaceuticals in animal milk
-to maintain the genetic material from the endangered species
-for faster livestock breeding
-organ harvesting
What are some reasons for animal cloning
-medical advancements: without animal testing, many breakthroughs in medicine would not have been possible
-humans have a duty to prioritise their own survival over welfare of animals
-preclinical safety testing: animals tested to minimise risks to people. Thanks to animals, the chances of human suffering in clinical trials are significantly reduced.
-necessary for research
What are some reasons against animal cloning
-animal suffering: animals experience pain and emotions just as humans do
-if humans should not be experimented on for “the greater good” then the same logic should apply to animals
-animal experimentation will one day be viewed as barbaric, just as past unethical human experiments are now condemned
-alternatives are available:new technologies could replace animal testing and be more effective
-some drugs that pass animal testing fail in humans meaning a huge amount of money and resources are wasted on ineffective experiments
Give an example of animal cloning
Scientists at the Rosilin Institute in Edinburgh rewrote the laws of biology in 1996 to produce a new genetic copy animal from adult cells taken from an existing sheep. The sheep created was called Dolly the Sheep
What is animal experimentation typically used for?
Animal experiments are widely used to develop new medicines and to test the safety of other products.
How do animal experimenters respond to the difficult issue of animal experimentation?
Animal experimenters are very aware of this ethical problem and acknowledge that experiments should be made as humane as possible. They also agree that it’s wrong to use animals if alternative testing methods would produce equally valid results.
Why is animal experimentation a difficult issue?
Many of these experiments cause pain to the animals involved or reduce their quality of life in other ways. If it is morally wrong to cause animals to suffer then experimenting on animals produces serious moral problems.
What would those in favour of animal experimentation say?
Experimenting on animals is acceptable if •suffering is minimised in all experiments
•human are gained which could not be obtained by using other methods
What would those against animal experimentation say?
Experimenting on animals is unacceptable because
•it causes suffering to animals
•the benefits to human beings are not proven
•any benefits to human beings that animal testing does provide could be produced in other ways.
What are the three Rs?
reduction, refinement, replacement
What is reduction?
Reducing the number of animals used in experiments by:
-Improving experimental techniques
-Improving techniques of data analysis
-Sharing information with other researchers
What is refinement?
Refining the experiment or the way the animals are cared for to reduce their suffering by:
-Using less invasive techniques
-Better medical care
-Better living conditions
What is replacement?
Replacing experiments on animals with alternative techniques such as:
-Experimenting on cell cultures instead of whole animals
-Using computer models
-Studying human volunteers
-Using epidemiological studies (the study of how often diseases occur in different groups of people and why.)
Scientists say that banning animal testing would mean either…
-an end to testing new drugs or
-using human beings for all safety tests
What is the consequentialist argument of animal experimentation?
Those in favour of animal experiments say that the good done to human beings outweighs the harm done to animals. This is a consequentialist argument because it looks at the consequences of the actions under consideration. It can’t be used to defend all forms of experimentation since there are some forms of suffering that are probably impossible to justify even if the benefits are exceptionally valuable to
humanity.
What is the acts and omissions argument?
The argument says that it is morally worse for the experimenter to harm animals by experimenting on them than it is to(potentially) harm some human beings by not doing an experiment that might find a cure for their disease.
What is xenotransplantation
organ transplantation from one species to another
Give some info from the NHS website about xenotransplantation
-There are currently 7410 people on the national waiting list for an organ transplant
-Up to 1000 people die every year due to a shortage of organs for transplants, that is 3 people every week
What is an important quote from PETA?
“animals aren’t tool sheds to be raided, but complex, intelligent beings”
why is xenotransplantation being considered?
-very few human tissues and organs are available for transplantation,
-Transplant specialists are therefore considering animals as a possible source of organs and tissues for human transplantation. The greatest benefit of xenotransplantation would be a potentially unlimited supply of cells, tissues and organs for use in humans
what sort of disease or health problems could xenotransplantation help to cure or alleviate?
-it is possible that isolated cells could be transplanted to treat diseases such as diabetes, Parkinson’s disease, Huntingdon’s disease or strokes.
-xenotransplantation could be used to ‘buy time’ while potential transplant patients wait for a suitable donor.
what does xenotransplantation research involve?
research is needed that includes:
-animal to animal studies(preclinical studies)-in which proposed xenotransplantation procedures are tested on animals (eg pig-to-baboon kidney transplant);
-animal to human trials(clinical trials)-in which animal products are used for xenotransplantation procedures on human beings (eg pig-to-human brain cell transplants).
why are pigs used for xenotransplantation
• they reproduce quickly
• their organs are similar in size to those of humans;
• they are easy to rear in conditions free of particular pathogens (disease-causing organisms);
• the risk that they will carry pathogens that can infect humans is smaller than with nonhuman primates (apes and monkeys)
• they can be genetically manipulated to reduce the risk of rejection.
what are the risks of xenotransplantation to the recipient?
The main risk to the recipient of a transplant is rejection due to the patient’s immune response.
The risk of rejection in xenotransplantation is more severe because the differences between the donor and the recipient are much greater.
what are the risks of xenotransplantation to the wider community
The major concem for public health is that xenotransplantation might transmit an infectious agent (such as a virus) from animals to humans.
If a retrovirus present in a xenotransplant were to infect the recipient of the transplant, it may spread to close contacts, carers and even the general population before it became obvious that an infection had occurred.
what are the pros of/reasons for xenotransplantation
-It increases the number of organ sources.
-new infectious agents are less likely with pigs because humans have domesticated them for generations.
-The shortage of organs for transplantation results all around the world accounts for 20-35% of deaths of patients on the waiting list.
-The breeding of genetically modified pigs as well as new cloning techniques may be used to reduce the risk of organ rejection.
what are the cons of/reasons against xenotransplantation
-There have been no successful xenotransplantation trials to date because of problems that arise from the response of the immune system of the patient.
-There is a high risk of transferring diseases and viruses from animals to humans. For example, human contact with chimpanzee blood possibly transmitted an immune deficiency from chimps to humans, where it mutated into HIV and then to AIDS - now a global pandemic.
-Animal rights groups are vocal about the killing of animals to harvest their organs for use in humans. Animals are sentient intelligent beings and cannot consent to being harvested for their organs.
-Raising animals in a lab with the purpose of killing them for human benefits is cruel and diminishes the quality of life of the animal.
What is some general information in relation to animal use(situation ethics)?
-SE has no clear guidance
-Many people who agree with SE do see animals as being part of God’s love
-We have to act in the most loving way to animals due to the fact that it is a Christian theory and it is stated in the Bible that we have been granted stewardship over animals.
What are the agree arguments of situation ethicists in relation to blood sports?
-A situation ethicist probably could construct a case that fox-hunting is agapeic. Foxes repeatedly do great damage to stocks of chicken and lamb.
What are the disagree arguments of situation ethicists in relation to blood sports?
-it’s likely that situation ethicists would not put the interests of humans before those of animal species in cases where human pleasures are gained at the expense of animal pain and suffering
-there is arguably nothing agapeic about blood sports
What are the agree arguments of situation ethicists in relation to using animals as food?
-current estimates are that about 795 million people globally are undernourished
-some who follow SE would argue that the most loving thing to do in this global situation is to increase intensive farming since this puts people first
What are the disagree arguments of situation ethicists in relation to using animals as food?
-Other situation ethicists could argue that this is not loving because the calculations maximise misery rather than love, and look for short term rather than long term solutions to the problem
-a situation where there is a human need for food could be met with vegetarianism
-animals are kept in cages(fattened snd beaks shaved) -this is not agapeic
What are the agree arguments of situation ethicists in relation to xenotransplantation ?
-animal organs could help meet the demand of organs needed for organ transplants in humans
-Fletcher’s SE is directed at persons. For most people animals do not qualify as persons in the strict sense,
-“Who is to be helped?” is an important question for Fletcher. In this instance all those people requiring organs. Human persons are in need.
What are the disagree arguments of situation ethicists in relation to xenotransplantation ?
-Some situation ethicists will of course insist that as beings with social and cognitive functions, other animals qualify as persons, so donors should be dead or consenting humans.
What are the agree arguments of situation ethicists in relation to cloning?
-If we say that the human welfare is the end, and we look at the animals as the means to that end, then it provides a clear justification that animal testing is for the greater good of the human race
-Fletcher advocated the use of animals in scientific procedures as the means to the end of human welfare, and as a pragmatic way of saving human lives by the development of vaccines for the major diseases that cause so much human suffering.
What are the disagree arguments of situation ethicists in relation to cloning?
-Some people at the same time stress the need for the adequate control of pain for the animals concerned.
-Some argue, however, that it can never be loving to subject an animal to the kinds of test experimentation requires.
-“mice had tubes inserted into their brains”-PETA
-“When no longer needed, animals were killed using disturbing methods such as carbon dioxide poisoning in gas chambers or decapitation of infant rats with scissors.”-PETA
What is some general information in relation to animal use(Catholic Church NML)?
-Only humans are made in imago dei and have been given dominion in Genesis
-Following teachings of the Church(Pope Francis:think Laudato Si and stewardship)
-Consideration of the Bible and Genesis
-Pope Francis rejects anthropocentism because it promotes environmental degradation, ignoring the value of all of God’s creation
What does the Catholic church NML argue about using animals in blood sports?
CCC: “It is contrary to human dignity to cause animals to suffer or die needlessly”
-There is nothing ‘kind’ about blood sports and they do cause the animal to ‘suffer and die needlessly’ so the Catholic Church approach is more reasonable than that of Aquinas.
-It is hard to see how animals that are killed or maimed at the expense of human enjoyment allow animals to fulfil the end for which is created by God.
What does the Catholic church NML argue about using animals for food?
-The Catholic Church has no issue with using animals for food, though may suggest that free range farming is more ethical, in the treatment of animals(in line with stewardship in the Bible)
What does the Catholic church NML argue about xenotransplantation?
-Catholic Medical Association(UK)- “We are opposed to any xenotransplantation which might modify the germ line”.
-The Catholic Church is against xenotransplantation that changed the germ line because it involves altering genetic material passed on to future generations.
What does germline mean?
-The term ‘germline’ means inherited material that comes from the eggs or sperm which is passed on to offspring
What does the Catholic church NML argue about using animals in cloning ?
-The use of animals in
scientific experiments is also acceptable within the Catholic Church, which has presumably been influenced by Aquinas
-“Medical and scientific
experimentation on animals is a morally acceptable practice, if it remains within reasonable limits and contributes to caring for or saving human lives.” (Catechism of Catholic Church).
-okay for yield and to stop diseases
What is some general information in relation to animal use(Aquinas NML)?
-Aquinas believed that humans are rational beings that have a God given reason, through being made in the image of God that which helps them to discover the primary precepts.
-These precepts are absolute and Aquinas believed that we should always follow them
-Following them leads to ultimate happiness with God in Heaven
-Adopts the hierarchy of souls
-humans can use animals as they like
What would Aquinas (NML) argue about using animals in blood sports?
-Aquinas wouldn’t have any objections to using animals in blood sports
-He believes that humans are superior so can use animals as they see fit
-If this results in pain and suffering being inflicted upon animals, then it is acceptable
-if it results in the animal dying then it is also acceptable
What would Aquinas (NML) argue about using animals as food?
-Since Aquinas believed that animals are for human use, he justifies using animals as food and in intensive farming procedures
-Aquinas doesn’t believe that this is a moral issue, and justifies his approach further by reinforcing the idea of dominion being given to humans over animals by God.
-The issue of whether animals have a right to life is not relevant to Aquinas’ system since any potential rights for animals are subsumed under the rights of humans; which includes the right to use animals any way that they wish
What would Aquinas (NML) argue about using animals in xenotransplantation?
-Aquinas thought that with certain safeguards, using animals as a source of organs for transplants would probably be acceptable to Aquinas’ NML
-The safeguards would include a ban on any attempt to modify the human germline which would be a modification of God’s blueprint for humans at creation
-Aquinas is concerned with nature and xenotransplantation can be argued clearly as an unnatural process
What would Aquinas (NML) argue about using animals in scientific procedures and cloning ?
-If the status of animals is no greater than being human beings’ property, then the use of animals in scientific procedures is not immoral, especially because the experiments may develop cures for a variety of human diseases
-The pain inflicted on an animal would be accepted by Aquinas only if it was necessary. If it wasn’t necessary, Aquinas would have a different view
-Aquinas holds that if a person is cruel to an innocent animal, this is morally wrong, not for the sake of the animal but because the person is concerned
-cloning: given the enormous potential to change the very nature of animal species, Aquinas would probably condemn all such procedures since each species was created by God to fulfill their purpose as that species
What is some general information in relation to animal use(Proportionalism NML)?
-When it comes to the use of animals, proportionalism will evaluate whether the overall balance of good and evil is justified.
-Proportionalism would recognize the intrinsic value of animals and their wellbeing but may allow for the use of animals in certain circumstances if the benefits to humans are deemed proportionate to the harm caused to the animals. For example, in medical research, where the potential benefits for human health and well-being are significant, proportionalism might justify the use of animals.
-Some may emphasize the importance of minimizing harm to animals and seeking alternatives whenever possible, while others may prioritise human goods and benefits in their ethical assessments
What would Proportionalism (NML) argue about using animals in blood sports?
-Seeking the Lesser Evil: In applying Proportionalism to blood sports, one might explore ways to minimize the negative consequences. This could involve implementing stricter regulations to ensure the humane treatment of animals, exploring alternative forms of entertainment that don’t involve harm to animals.
What would Proportionalism (NML) argue about using animals as food?
-Positive outcomes could include increased food production , economic gains for farmers, and potentially more affordable food prices. On the downside, there are ethical Concerns related to the treatment of animals, environmental degradation, and potential health risks.
What would Proportionalism (NML) argue about xenotransplantation?
Proponents of xenotransplantation argue that it holds great promise for addressing the shortage of human organs available for transplantation. This medical procedure could potentially save numerous lives by providing a new source of organs for patients in need. It may also offer hope to individuals facing critical health conditions.
What would Proportionalism (NML) argue about using animals in cloning and scientific procedures ?
-Proponents of using animals in scientific and medicinal
research argue that it has led to numerous medical advancements, treatments, and breakthroughs.
-Animal testing is often seen as crucial for understanding diseases, developing new drugs, and ensuring the safety of medical interventions. This research has the potential to save human lives, improve health outcomes, and contribute to scientific knowledge.
-In applying Proportionalism, there may be a call to minimize the negative consequences associated with animal research. This could involve implementing stringent ethical guidelines(the 3 Rs) to reduce animal suffering.
What is some general information in relation to animal use(virtue ethics)?
-No clear-cut guidance.
-Hierarchy of souls shows humans are the only part of nature able to reason and reach eudaimonia.
Animals purpose is to serve humans.
-Aristotle may not have viewed animals as having rights.
-Modern VE may look to the virtues and vices and apply them to each situation.
-What is virtuous will change depending on the context
-Humans are the only rational beings who are capable of understanding morality
-Aristotle himself used animals in scientific research to gain advancements in knowledge( one of the intellectual virtues)
What would Virtue Ethics argue about using animals in blood sports?
-Animals can’t defend themselves so participation in blood sports to some a lack of consideration for humans as well as animals
-Some might appeal the virtue of temperance, arguing that experiencing pleasure at the expense of other beings is not conducive to developing a good character
-Rosalind Hursthouse argues that blood sports shows the vice of callousness
-Philosopher Roger Scruton argued that some blood sports are “courageous”, for example the matador who faces an enraged bull takes his life into its hands
What would Virtue Ethics argue for using animals as food ?
+Given Aristotle’s hierarchy of souls, he would have had no problems with humans eating meat since animals exist for the sake of humans
+Some virtue ethicists might say that virtues must be directed towards persons and not animals
What would Virtue Ethics argue against using animals as food ?
-Perhaps the main virtue we should consider is that of compassion. Compassion cannot be compartmentalised so that we talk about compassion just for humans. You are either a compassionate person or not. If you are, then compassion must apply to all, humans and non human.
-Male chicks cannot produce eggs do are useless to the egg industry. They are thrown in to trash bags and left to suffocate or else they are ground up alive.
