Appeal to Authority Flashcards
Appeal to Authority
1650-1800 Culmination (leiden tot, eindresultaat), crises & reaction
Impact of 17th century. 3x
- social
- technological
- intellectual
Restoration of Monarchy
1660 Charles II
Succeeded Charles I who was beheaded in front of Banquetting House (London palace of the monarch)
Royal Society
Rational science + occult science (irrationality, witchcraft, obscurity = Enthusiastis) & learned discourse belonged to everyone.
=> Scientific language = factual + non-emotional & evidence-based
Augustan age 6x
1800-1850
- Rational discourse = correctness is ideal
- search for stability = reason + rationality important
- sense of order = set up rules & principles
- value of regulation = urge for system and regularity
- Latin + classics still important
Ascertainment 4x
= set up a standard !!!! Spelling, use + grammar
- set up standard for correct use of language = reduce language to these rules
- refine language = remove defects + introduce improvements
- fix language permanently in desired form
Problem of Refining 5x
To what should it be refined?
Swift = huge influence = personal taste
- principle of authority (church + state should decide)
- Innovation = danger to stability in society (he was conservative)
- Disliked shortning of words; mob, rep
- Disliked shortning of verbs; rebuk’d, disturb’d
- Objected to “modern terms of art”; bubble, sham, bully
Goal: fix language to prevent future changes => future generations still understand his works (egocentric & vain)
English Academy 2x
Supported by; Dryden, Defoe, Swift & Queen Anne (died 1714 = end of project).
After French example.
Project stopped => Still more attention to language and its problems that needed solutions.
Objections to an Academy. 3
- French did not achieve unity + fixation
- Language always evolves = living
- Free spirit of the English = love to disobey rules (by an Academy)
Johnson’s Dictionary. 6x
- took Johnson 7 years = 2 volumes
- Inadequate; prejudice = not include words not to his liking (vulgar) + included questionable words (he liked).
- fixed spelling
- More English vocabulary bundled
- Gave examples for use
- It had the position of an Academy
Grammarians. (period + 4x)
- 18th century (1760
- increased interest in English grammar
- first based on inflectional grammar of the classics
- Priestley (1761), Lowth (1762), Buchanan (1762) & Ash (1763)
- Noah Webster (1784) = popular
Rhetoricians 4x
- Turn pholosophical concerns into linguistic prescriptions
- Thomas Sheridan: art of speaking & studying of English Language = cure “the evils of immorality, ignorance & false taste”
- Children should learn eloquence => improving the language
- Campbell (1776) Philosphy of Rhetoric = good use of the language
Aims of grammarians 3x
- Codify the principles + reduce it to rule
- Settle disputed points (like judges of language)
- Point out common errors => improve the language.
Beginnings of Prescriptive Grammar 2x
- Started to prescrive grammar instead of condemn it (had rather / had better, different from not different that/to, youwere not you was)
- Use of will/shall = decided
Ways of settling disputes (periode + 2)
18th century
- Reason; analogy appeals = regularity = set the rules
- Etymology; word origin - Latin & Greek not very useful
Doctrine of Usage (2)
Most important crition = usage (or custom of speaking)
- Joseph Priestley; standard = general prevailing custom = grammar rules solely based on usage (by the masses)
- George Campbell; language species of fahsion = authorised as good by great number of writings/majority of celebrated authors.
Limitations of early grammarians 4x
- Fail to acknowledge usage as sole arbiter in linguistic matter
- Not acknowledge languages evolve along unreasonable & irregular paths
- Solutions imposed (not working for the free spirited English)
- Ignored the natural process
Objection to foreign borrowings 2x
- French; fashionable & influential (language or the European courts + English aristocracy)
- Not many words introduced; ballet, boulevard, vartoon, negligee, publicity, routine
Expansion British Empire + effect on English language 3 + 8
- Acquired an enlarged sphere of activities
- Development of regional varieties of English
- Many new additions to vocabulary
- Native Americans; moose, raccoon, tomahawk
- Mexican Spanish; chili, chocolate, tomato
- Cuba + West Indies; barbecue, canoe
- Peru; alpaca, puma, condor
- Brazil + South America; cayenne, poncho
- India; bandana, bangle, jungle, curry
- Africa; boer, voodoo, zebra
- Australia; boomerang, kangaroo
