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APbio review Flashcards

Creating brainscape flashcards that help review topics that may be on the AP exam

1
Q

In bacteria, what is conjugation and what is it part of?

A
  • Part of Genetic Recombination (which is a factor that promotes genetic diversity in prokaryotes)
  • DNA is transferred from one bacteria to another through the sex pilus
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2
Q

Bacteria go through Transduction. What is transduction?

A
  • Viruses transfer genes between prokaryotes

- The viruses may carry some bacterial genes from the host cell

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3
Q

What is an operon?

A
  • A unit made up of genes or segments of DNA, linked together in a single transcription unit
  • comprised of an operator, promoter, and one or more structural genes transcribed into mRNA
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4
Q

What is the difference between an inducible operon and a repressible operon?

A
  • inducible operons produce proteins (this only happens under special circumstances
  • the arrival os lactose turns the operon “on”, allowing transcription of occur
  • repressible operon: always in the “on” position, unless a signal turns it “off”
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5
Q

What is transformation in bacteria?

A
  • The uptake of foreign DNA from its surroundings

- foreign DNA can come from dead bacterial cells

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6
Q

What is a plasmid?

A
  • a segment of DNA independent of the chromosomes (circular)
  • capable of replication
  • used in recombinant DNA procedures
  • antibiotic resistant
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7
Q

What happens in the process of nondisjunction?

A
  • occurs during meiosis, causing abnormal chromosome numbers
  • failure of one of or more chromosomes to separate during meiosis 1
  • also can be when chromosomes fail to separate during M2
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8
Q

What is intrasexual selection?

A

-Differential mating success among individuals of one sex due to interactions with members of the same sex

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9
Q

What is an okazaki fragment?

A

-short, newly synthesized DNA fragments that are formed on the lagging template strand during DNA replication

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10
Q

What are the two laws of Thermodynamics

A

1) law of conservation of energy can not be created or destroyed; can be charged from one form to another
2) Energy can not be changed from one form to another without a loss of usable energy

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11
Q

What is entropy?

A

The measurement of randomness or disorder

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12
Q

What are enzymes?

A
  • proteins that act as catalysts to speed up chemical reactants without begin charged
  • the product is the only thing that changes
  • they speed up reactions
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13
Q

How does an induced-fit model connect to enzymes?

A

-the substrate binds to an enzyme and the active site undergoes a slight change in shape that facilitate the reaction

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14
Q

What is the cell theory?

A

-all living things are composed of cells, cell in the structural functional unit of life, cells separate from cells

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15
Q

What is the difference between prokaryotes and Eukaryotes?

A

Prokaryotes: unicellular, DNA concentrated in nucleoid (no nucleus), 1-10um-smaller, no membrane bound organelles, and evolved 1.5 billions of years ago
Eukaryotes: multicellular, DNA in nucleus, 2-100gum-larger, have organelles, and evolved 3.5 billion years ago

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16
Q

What is the function of the Golgi Apparatus?

A
  • usually near the rough ER
  • Modifies phospholipids
  • proteins transport to golgi
  • cis-phase and exit through trans-phase
  • transport vacuoles
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17
Q

What is the peroxisomes?

A

specialized metabolic compartments, enzymes, hydrogen to oxygen gas (hydrogen peroxide)
-Enzyme that converts to water: lysosomes in both

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18
Q

What are two major points of evolution?

A

1) species have evolved from ancestral species and were not specially created
- species closely related to mainland
2) natural selection: mechanism that could result in this evolutionary change

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19
Q

What are several types of comparative anatomy?

A
  • homologous structures: structures that are similar because of similarity
  • Analogous structures: inherited unique ancestors, structures that look the same and similar because they serve a similar fashion (are used in the same way)
  • vestigial structures: evolutionary structures, is marginal
  • comparative embryology: all develop in the same womb; relating and linking similar stages in embryotic development
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20
Q

What is the difference between a habitat and a niche?

A
  • Habitat: where individuals live

- Niches: role or purpose it serves

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21
Q

Name several prey defenses

A

Plants: sharp spines, tough leathery leaves, poisonous chemicals, chemicals that act as hormone analogues to interfere with insect larvae development
Animals: camouflage, warning coloration, causing harm or fright to predators, association with other prey

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22
Q

What are the three types of survivorship curves?

A

Type I) low death rate during early and mid-life, increase in death rate at older age
Type II) constant death rate over the organism’s life span
Type III) high death rate for the young and a lower death rate for survivors

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23
Q

What happens to water when a cell is hyper tonic?

A

Water floods the cell and the cell bursts or expand the cell

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24
Q

What is the difference between Ultimate and Proximate?

A
  • Ultimate: evolutionary; why the behavior exists

- the immediate cause and/or mechanism (like muscles)

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25
Q

What is optimal behavior?

A

A behavior that maximizes individual fitness; evolution and ability to survive
-ex. songbird repertoire

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26
Q

What does maturation have to do with behavior?

A

-The neuromuscular control to perform behavior

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27
Q

Habituation is…

What is social detense? How does it compare with individual habituation?

A

ignore irrelevant information

  • social detense: group habituation
  • Individual habituation: the brain of an individual ignores
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28
Q

What is the difference between classical and operant conditioning?

A

Classical: Ivan Pavlov; Dog’s salivation; reward/punishment
Operant: B.F. Skinner; Trial-by-error

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29
Q

What are the 2 major points that Darwin made?

A

1) species have evolved from ancestral species and were not specially created: species closely related to mainland
2) Natural selection: mechanism that could result in this evolutionary change

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30
Q

Name several evidence of evolution

A
  • Biogeography: the geographical distribution of species
  • Fossil Records: it is incomplete but shows general trends in evolution
  • Comparative anatomy
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31
Q

In comparative anatomy, there are a few structures that give evidence of evolution. Name them.

A
  • Homologous: structures that are similar because of a similar ancestor
  • Analogous: (inherited unique ancestors) structures that look the same and similar because they serve a similar fashion (are used in the same way
  • Vestigial: rudimentary structures, is marginal use
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32
Q

What are water molecules?

A

They are cohesion: allows water to flow freely without molecules separating, due to hydrogen bonding
Adhesion: ability to adhere to polar structures; water has positive and negative poles
polar: unevenly distributed charge
able to hold heat

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33
Q

Describe the phospholipid membrane

A
  • There is a nonpolar tail and a polar head

- The heads are hydrophilic and the tails are hydrophobic

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34
Q

What does cholesterol do to a animal cell membrane?

A

Less fluid, more thick membrane (unsaturated = double bond)

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35
Q

Name some types of membrane transport types

A
  • small non-changed lipid molecules pass freely through the membrane
  • small polar molecules pass through on the concentration gradient
  • Macromolecules can’t pass through the membrane
  • ions and charged molecules=hard time passing though the membrane (active transport)
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36
Q

What is osmosis pressure?

A

hydrostatic pressure, or pressure that develops in the cell due to osmosis

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37
Q

What is tonicity?

A

strength of a solution in relation to osmosis, determining movement of water into or out of the cell

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38
Q

what happens when a solution is isotonic? When the cell is?

A

Isotonic: solute concentration of 2 solutions is equal

There is a constant rate of water into and out of the cell same for the solute

39
Q

What happens when a solution is hypertonic? When the cell is?

A

Hypertonic: solute concentration of 1 solution is greater than another solution
In the solution, water rushes from the hypotonic cell to the solution and the cell shrinks
In the cell: the hypertonic cell gains water and expands

40
Q

What happens when a solution is hypotonic? When the cell is?

A

Hypotonic: solute concentration of 1 solutions less than another solution
In the solution: more water is outside the cell: water leaves the solution and expands the cell
In the cell: more water is inside the cell, the water leaves the cell and makes the cell shrink

41
Q

What is exocytosis?

A

vesicles often formed by the golgi apparatus fuse with the plasma membrane and secrete product

42
Q

What is endocytosis?

A

cells takes in substances by the vesicles formation as membrane pinches off

43
Q

What is pinocytosis?

A

occurs when vesicles form around very small molecules or liquid

44
Q

What is phagocytosis?

A

used when material is too large to be taken in by endocytosis

45
Q

What is water potentail?

A
  • predicts which way water diffuses through plant tissues
  • free energy per mole of water
  • high=high free energy
  • low=low free energy
46
Q

What happens to water potential when there is an increase in positive pressure?

A

the pressure potential and the water potential rises

When solute is added the solution potential decreases causing the water potential to also decrease

47
Q

What is turgor?

IE: “trigger”

A

the movement of water into the cell causes the cell to swell and the cell membrane pushes against the cell wall to produce an increase in pressure. There is a pressure that counteracts this diffusion of water into the cell and it is called turgor pressure

48
Q

How does bacteria replicate?

A

Binary fission: DNA is replicated then 2 chromosomes separate, cell lengthens and pulls them apart

49
Q

What is mitosis spindle?

A

centrosome contains centrioles

  • spindles contain microtubules
  • tubules assemble when tubulin subunits join, dissemble when tubulin subunits become free, and form when interconnected filaments of cytoskeleton
50
Q

What is the difference between mitosis and meiosis?

A 
Mitosis is when a cell duplicates
Meiosis: forms gametes or zygotes
Meiosis has 2 stages Meiosis 1 and 2
In meiosis 1: crossing over may occur and nondisjunction (mutation)
Mitosis ends with 2 diploid cells
meiosis ends with 4 haploid cells
51
Q

Name the stages of the cell cycle and what happens in each stage.

A

G1: cell grows and organelles increase in number
S: the DNA within the cell duplicates
G2: this is the stage where the cell preps for mitosis (cell division)
M: when the cell divides
cytokinesis: Ending of the cell cycle

52
Q

What kind of relationship do roots and fungi have?

A

mutualistic association or mycorrhizae

this fungi increases the surface area for absorbing water and minerals

53
Q

What is water potential measured in?

A

megapascals

54
Q

What is the equation for pure water?

A

Ψ=0 MPa

55
Q

What is the equation for water potential?

A 
Ψ = Ψs - Ψp
Ψs = solute concentration or osmotic pressure
Ψp = pressure or physical pressure
56
Q

What does water potential affect?

A

affects uptake and loss of water by plant cells

57
Q

What happens to a flaccid cell when is placed in an environment with a higher solute concentration?

A

the cell will lose water and undergo plasmolysis

58
Q

What if the flaccid cell is placed in an environment with a low solute concentration?

A

the cell will gain water and become turgid

59
Q

What is the difference between exergonic and endergonic?

A

exer: reactions have a -ΔG and energy is released
Exo: reactions have a +ΔG; products have more energy when reactants; such reactions only occurs with an input of energy

60
Q

What is a metabolic pathway?

A

are orderly sequences of chemical reactions; each step is catalyzed by a specific enzyme (Do you know what the enzyme graph looks like??)

61
Q

Please explain what an induced fit model is

A

when the substrate binds to an enzyme and the active site undergoes a slight change in shape that facilitate the reactions

62
Q

What is an allosteric site?

A

a regulatory binding site on an enzyme that controls the activity of that enzyme

63
Q

Know what a chloroplast looks like

A

stroma, thylakoid, grana, outer membrane, inner membrane

64
Q

What happens in the thylakoid?

A

chlorophyll is found, converts light energy to chemical energy (through PS1 and PS2)

65
Q

What happens in the stroma?

A

fluid outside the thylakoid

uses the chemical energy from PS1 and PS2 to convert CO2 to sugar (calvin cycle)

66
Q

What is the overall equal of photosynthesis?

A

6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy → C6H12O6 + 6O2

67
Q

What happens when water spits?

A

O2 released by plants comes from the splitting of water, not from CO2
Plants split water as a source of hydrogen and release oxygen as a byproduct

68
Q

What provides energy to produce ATP from ADP using ATP synthase?

A

the flow of H+ ions from high to low concentration across the thylakoid membrane

69
Q

In an ecosystem how does energy flow?

A 
Primary producers (autotrophs) → primary consumers (herbivores) → secondary consumers → tertiary consumers → quaternary consumers 
All consumers are heterotrophs
70
Q

What is Mendel’s blending concept of inheritance?

A

offspring would possess traits intermediate between those of different parents

71
Q

What is Mendel’s Chromosomal theory of inheritance?

A

1) both chromosomes and alleles are paired in diploid cells
2) Chromosomes and alleles of each pair separate during meiosis (anaphase 1) so gametes have 1/2
3) chromo’s and alleles separate individually; gametes contain all combinations
4) Fertilization restores diploid chromo # and pairs alleles

72
Q 
Name what each scientist did:
-Griffith
-Avery
-Hershey and Chase
-Chargaff
-Franklin
Watson and Crick
-Meselson and Stahl
A

Griffith: Mice
Avery: eliminated protein to see if bacteria still worked
Hershey and Chase: Bacteria phages
Chargaff: analyzed DNA bases
Franklin: took a picture of a DNA molecule
Watson and Crick: stole Franklin’s research and built a diagram of DNA
Meselson and Stahl: confirmed that DNA replicates

73
Q

What happens in S phase?

A

1) unwinding of DNA by helicase
2) complementary Base pairing catalyzed by DNA polymerase
3) joined back together by ligase
4) DNA rep must be done before a cell divides

74
Q

Where does replication occur?

A

origins of replication

75
Q

What does the single stranded binding protein do?

A

occurs after helicase

helps to keep the DNA from winding back together

76
Q

What is the equation for a logistic growth model?

A

dN/dt = rmax N ((K-N)/K)

77
Q

What are some reproductive patterns?

A
  • semelparity: a lot of offspring at once

- heroparity: produce a few offspring at a time, repeatedly

78
Q

What the 5 Hardy Weinberg conditions?

A

1) no mutation
2) no gene flow, isolation from other populations
3) random mating
4) no genetic drift, large population
5) no natural selection

79
Q

What is the prezygotic barrier made of?

A

Habitat isolation, behavioral isolation, temporal isolation, mechanical isolation, and gametic isolation

80
Q

What is the postzygotic barrier made of?

A

reduced hybrid variability
reduced hybrid fertility
Hybrid Breakdown

81
Q

What is macroevolution?

A

large scale changes over time

-studies focus on change that occurs at or above the level of species

82
Q

What are systematics?

A

use of fossil evidence and existing organisms to reconstruct phylogeny

83
Q

What is the difference between bacteria and viruses?

A

Bacteria: prokaryotic cells, mostly free living, larger, antibiotics used to kill bacteria
viruses: not living, composed of protein shell, intracellular parasites, 1/1000 the size of bacteria (smaller than ribosomes), antiviral treatments / prevents with vaccines

84
Q

What are the components of the viruses?

A
  • nucleic acid + capsid
  • Nucleic acid = RNA and DNA
  • Protein shell
  • Viral envelope: surrounding capsid
  • limited host range
85
Q

How are viruses replicated?

A

Lytic and Lysogenic

86
Q

What is a temperate phage?

A

uses both methods of replication

87
Q

What are factors of genetic diversity in prokaryotes?

A

1) Rapid reproduction (binary fission)
2) mutation; errors in replication
3) Genetic recombination
- Transformation
- transduction
- conjugation

88
Q

What are the functions of the lymphatic system?

A
  • consists of lymphatic vessels and lymphoid organs
    1) take up excessive fluid
    2) absorb fats
    3) defends body against disease
89
Q

What is the flow of the lymph?

A

1) capillaries
2) vessels
3) thoracic duct or right lymphatic duct
4) subcavian veins

90
Q

What are the types of phagocyte?

A

1) ordinary phagocyte: engulfs more than once; apoptosis
2) monocytes: develops into macrophages; only kills a couple times
3) macrophages: kills hundreds of times; can absorb some protein coats

91
Q

What is the complement system?

A

proteins, kills bacterial cells; creates holes in bacteria

92
Q

What are interferons?

A

call viruses, all cells have receptors; attach to cells

-cells get infected: signal to other cells @ how to prevent infecting and others leave

93
Q

What is the difference between primary and secondary immune response and active and passive immunity?

A

1st time
2nd time
naturally after infection or immunization
short lived and newborns

94
Q

Name some types of neuron structures

A
  • multipolar: ☀⎯‹
  • bipolar: ›⎯❍⎯‹
  • unipolar: ›⎯¶⎯‹

AP testing flash (2 decks)

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