APbio review Flashcards
Creating brainscape flashcards that help review topics that may be on the AP exam
1
Q
In bacteria, what is conjugation and what is it part of?
A
- Part of Genetic Recombination (which is a factor that promotes genetic diversity in prokaryotes)
- DNA is transferred from one bacteria to another through the sex pilus
2
Q
Bacteria go through Transduction. What is transduction?
A
- Viruses transfer genes between prokaryotes
- The viruses may carry some bacterial genes from the host cell
3
Q
What is an operon?
A
- A unit made up of genes or segments of DNA, linked together in a single transcription unit
- comprised of an operator, promoter, and one or more structural genes transcribed into mRNA
4
Q
What is the difference between an inducible operon and a repressible operon?
A
- inducible operons produce proteins (this only happens under special circumstances
- the arrival os lactose turns the operon “on”, allowing transcription of occur
- repressible operon: always in the “on” position, unless a signal turns it “off”
5
Q
What is transformation in bacteria?
A
- The uptake of foreign DNA from its surroundings
- foreign DNA can come from dead bacterial cells
6
Q
What is a plasmid?
A
- a segment of DNA independent of the chromosomes (circular)
- capable of replication
- used in recombinant DNA procedures
- antibiotic resistant
7
Q
What happens in the process of nondisjunction?
A
- occurs during meiosis, causing abnormal chromosome numbers
- failure of one of or more chromosomes to separate during meiosis 1
- also can be when chromosomes fail to separate during M2
8
Q
What is intrasexual selection?
A
-Differential mating success among individuals of one sex due to interactions with members of the same sex
9
Q
What is an okazaki fragment?
A
-short, newly synthesized DNA fragments that are formed on the lagging template strand during DNA replication
10
Q
What are the two laws of Thermodynamics
A
1) law of conservation of energy can not be created or destroyed; can be charged from one form to another
2) Energy can not be changed from one form to another without a loss of usable energy
11
Q
What is entropy?
A
The measurement of randomness or disorder
12
Q
What are enzymes?
A
- proteins that act as catalysts to speed up chemical reactants without begin charged
- the product is the only thing that changes
- they speed up reactions
13
Q
How does an induced-fit model connect to enzymes?
A
-the substrate binds to an enzyme and the active site undergoes a slight change in shape that facilitate the reaction
14
Q
What is the cell theory?
A
-all living things are composed of cells, cell in the structural functional unit of life, cells separate from cells
15
Q
What is the difference between prokaryotes and Eukaryotes?
A
Prokaryotes: unicellular, DNA concentrated in nucleoid (no nucleus), 1-10um-smaller, no membrane bound organelles, and evolved 1.5 billions of years ago
Eukaryotes: multicellular, DNA in nucleus, 2-100gum-larger, have organelles, and evolved 3.5 billion years ago
16
Q
What is the function of the Golgi Apparatus?
A
- usually near the rough ER
- Modifies phospholipids
- proteins transport to golgi
- cis-phase and exit through trans-phase
- transport vacuoles
17
Q
What is the peroxisomes?
A
specialized metabolic compartments, enzymes, hydrogen to oxygen gas (hydrogen peroxide)
-Enzyme that converts to water: lysosomes in both
18
Q
What are two major points of evolution?
A
1) species have evolved from ancestral species and were not specially created
- species closely related to mainland
2) natural selection: mechanism that could result in this evolutionary change
19
Q
What are several types of comparative anatomy?
A
- homologous structures: structures that are similar because of similarity
- Analogous structures: inherited unique ancestors, structures that look the same and similar because they serve a similar fashion (are used in the same way)
- vestigial structures: evolutionary structures, is marginal
- comparative embryology: all develop in the same womb; relating and linking similar stages in embryotic development
20
Q
What is the difference between a habitat and a niche?
A
- Habitat: where individuals live
- Niches: role or purpose it serves
21
Q
Name several prey defenses
A
Plants: sharp spines, tough leathery leaves, poisonous chemicals, chemicals that act as hormone analogues to interfere with insect larvae development
Animals: camouflage, warning coloration, causing harm or fright to predators, association with other prey
22
Q
What are the three types of survivorship curves?
A
Type I) low death rate during early and mid-life, increase in death rate at older age
Type II) constant death rate over the organism’s life span
Type III) high death rate for the young and a lower death rate for survivors
23
Q
What happens to water when a cell is hyper tonic?
A
Water floods the cell and the cell bursts or expand the cell
24
Q
What is the difference between Ultimate and Proximate?
A
- Ultimate: evolutionary; why the behavior exists
- the immediate cause and/or mechanism (like muscles)
25
What is optimal behavior?
A behavior that maximizes individual fitness; evolution and ability to survive
-ex. songbird repertoire
26
What does maturation have to do with behavior?
-The neuromuscular control to perform behavior
27
Habituation is...
| What is social detense? How does it compare with individual habituation?
ignore irrelevant information
- social detense: group habituation
- Individual habituation: the brain of an individual ignores
28
What is the difference between classical and operant conditioning?
Classical: Ivan Pavlov; Dog's salivation; reward/punishment
Operant: B.F. Skinner; Trial-by-error
29
What are the 2 major points that Darwin made?
1) species have evolved from ancestral species and were not specially created: species closely related to mainland
2) Natural selection: mechanism that could result in this evolutionary change
30
Name several evidence of evolution
- Biogeography: the geographical distribution of species
- Fossil Records: it is incomplete but shows general trends in evolution
- Comparative anatomy
31
In comparative anatomy, there are a few structures that give evidence of evolution. Name them.
- Homologous: structures that are similar because of a similar ancestor
- Analogous: (inherited unique ancestors) structures that look the same and similar because they serve a similar fashion (are used in the same way
- Vestigial: rudimentary structures, is marginal use
32
What are water molecules?
They are cohesion: allows water to flow freely without molecules separating, due to hydrogen bonding
Adhesion: ability to adhere to polar structures; water has positive and negative poles
polar: unevenly distributed charge
able to hold heat
33
Describe the phospholipid membrane
- There is a nonpolar tail and a polar head
| - The heads are hydrophilic and the tails are hydrophobic
34
What does cholesterol do to a animal cell membrane?
Less fluid, more thick membrane (unsaturated = double bond)
35
Name some types of membrane transport types
- small non-changed lipid molecules pass freely through the membrane
- small polar molecules pass through on the concentration gradient
- Macromolecules can't pass through the membrane
- ions and charged molecules=hard time passing though the membrane (active transport)
36
What is osmosis pressure?
hydrostatic pressure, or pressure that develops in the cell due to osmosis
37
What is tonicity?
strength of a solution in relation to osmosis, determining movement of water into or out of the cell
38
what happens when a solution is isotonic? When the cell is?
Isotonic: solute concentration of 2 solutions is equal
| There is a constant rate of water into and out of the cell same for the solute
39
What happens when a solution is hypertonic? When the cell is?
Hypertonic: solute concentration of 1 solution is greater than another solution
In the solution, water rushes from the hypotonic cell to the solution and the cell shrinks
In the cell: the hypertonic cell gains water and expands
40
What happens when a solution is hypotonic? When the cell is?
Hypotonic: solute concentration of 1 solutions less than another solution
In the solution: more water is outside the cell: water leaves the solution and expands the cell
In the cell: more water is inside the cell, the water leaves the cell and makes the cell shrink
41
What is exocytosis?
vesicles often formed by the golgi apparatus fuse with the plasma membrane and secrete product
42
What is endocytosis?
cells takes in substances by the vesicles formation as membrane pinches off
43
What is pinocytosis?
occurs when vesicles form around very small molecules or liquid
44
What is phagocytosis?
used when material is too large to be taken in by endocytosis
45
What is water potentail?
- predicts which way water diffuses through plant tissues
- free energy per mole of water
- high=high free energy
- low=low free energy
46
What happens to water potential when there is an increase in positive pressure?
the pressure potential and the water potential rises
| When solute is added the solution potential decreases causing the water potential to also decrease
47
What is turgor?
| IE: "trigger"
the movement of water into the cell causes the cell to swell and the cell membrane pushes against the cell wall to produce an increase in pressure. There is a pressure that counteracts this diffusion of water into the cell and it is called turgor pressure
48
How does bacteria replicate?
Binary fission: DNA is replicated then 2 chromosomes separate, cell lengthens and pulls them apart
49
What is mitosis spindle?
centrosome contains centrioles
- spindles contain microtubules
- tubules assemble when tubulin subunits join, dissemble when tubulin subunits become free, and form when interconnected filaments of cytoskeleton
50
What is the difference between mitosis and meiosis?
```
Mitosis is when a cell duplicates
Meiosis: forms gametes or zygotes
Meiosis has 2 stages Meiosis 1 and 2
In meiosis 1: crossing over may occur and nondisjunction (mutation)
Mitosis ends with 2 diploid cells
meiosis ends with 4 haploid cells
```
51
Name the stages of the cell cycle and what happens in each stage.
G1: cell grows and organelles increase in number
S: the DNA within the cell duplicates
G2: this is the stage where the cell preps for mitosis (cell division)
M: when the cell divides
cytokinesis: Ending of the cell cycle
52
What kind of relationship do roots and fungi have?
mutualistic association or mycorrhizae
| this fungi increases the surface area for absorbing water and minerals
53
What is water potential measured in?
megapascals
54
What is the equation for pure water?
Ψ=0 MPa
55
What is the equation for water potential?
```
Ψ = Ψs - Ψp
Ψs = solute concentration or osmotic pressure
Ψp = pressure or physical pressure
```
56
What does water potential affect?
affects uptake and loss of water by plant cells
57
What happens to a flaccid cell when is placed in an environment with a higher solute concentration?
the cell will lose water and undergo plasmolysis
58
What if the flaccid cell is placed in an environment with a low solute concentration?
the cell will gain water and become turgid
59
What is the difference between exergonic and endergonic?
exer: reactions have a -ΔG and energy is released
Exo: reactions have a +ΔG; products have more energy when reactants; such reactions only occurs with an input of energy
60
What is a metabolic pathway?
are orderly sequences of chemical reactions; each step is catalyzed by a specific enzyme (Do you know what the enzyme graph looks like??)
61
Please explain what an induced fit model is
when the substrate binds to an enzyme and the active site undergoes a slight change in shape that facilitate the reactions
62
What is an allosteric site?
a regulatory binding site on an enzyme that controls the activity of that enzyme
63
Know what a chloroplast looks like
stroma, thylakoid, grana, outer membrane, inner membrane
64
What happens in the thylakoid?
chlorophyll is found, converts light energy to chemical energy (through PS1 and PS2)
65
What happens in the stroma?
fluid outside the thylakoid
| uses the chemical energy from PS1 and PS2 to convert CO2 to sugar (calvin cycle)
66
What is the overall equal of photosynthesis?
6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy → C6H12O6 + 6O2
67
What happens when water spits?
O2 released by plants comes from the splitting of water, not from CO2
Plants split water as a source of hydrogen and release oxygen as a byproduct
68
What provides energy to produce ATP from ADP using ATP synthase?
the flow of H+ ions from high to low concentration across the thylakoid membrane
69
In an ecosystem how does energy flow?
```
Primary producers (autotrophs) → primary consumers (herbivores) → secondary consumers → tertiary consumers → quaternary consumers
All consumers are heterotrophs
```
70
What is Mendel's blending concept of inheritance?
offspring would possess traits intermediate between those of different parents
71
What is Mendel's Chromosomal theory of inheritance?
1) both chromosomes and alleles are paired in diploid cells
2) Chromosomes and alleles of each pair separate during meiosis (anaphase 1) so gametes have 1/2
3) chromo's and alleles separate individually; gametes contain all combinations
4) Fertilization restores diploid chromo # and pairs alleles
72
```
Name what each scientist did:
-Griffith
-Avery
-Hershey and Chase
-Chargaff
-Franklin
Watson and Crick
-Meselson and Stahl
```
Griffith: Mice
Avery: eliminated protein to see if bacteria still worked
Hershey and Chase: Bacteria phages
Chargaff: analyzed DNA bases
Franklin: took a picture of a DNA molecule
Watson and Crick: stole Franklin's research and built a diagram of DNA
Meselson and Stahl: confirmed that DNA replicates
73
What happens in S phase?
1) unwinding of DNA by helicase
2) complementary Base pairing catalyzed by DNA polymerase
3) joined back together by ligase
4) DNA rep must be done before a cell divides
74
Where does replication occur?
origins of replication
75
What does the single stranded binding protein do?
occurs after helicase
| helps to keep the DNA from winding back together
76
What is the equation for a logistic growth model?
dN/dt = rmax N ((K-N)/K)
77
What are some reproductive patterns?
- semelparity: a lot of offspring at once
| - heroparity: produce a few offspring at a time, repeatedly
78
What the 5 Hardy Weinberg conditions?
1) no mutation
2) no gene flow, isolation from other populations
3) random mating
4) no genetic drift, large population
5) no natural selection
79
What is the prezygotic barrier made of?
Habitat isolation, behavioral isolation, temporal isolation, mechanical isolation, and gametic isolation
80
What is the postzygotic barrier made of?
reduced hybrid variability
reduced hybrid fertility
Hybrid Breakdown
81
What is macroevolution?
large scale changes over time
| -studies focus on change that occurs at or above the level of species
82
What are systematics?
use of fossil evidence and existing organisms to reconstruct phylogeny
83
What is the difference between bacteria and viruses?
Bacteria: prokaryotic cells, mostly free living, larger, antibiotics used to kill bacteria
viruses: not living, composed of protein shell, intracellular parasites, 1/1000 the size of bacteria (smaller than ribosomes), antiviral treatments / prevents with vaccines
84
What are the components of the viruses?
- nucleic acid + capsid
- Nucleic acid = RNA and DNA
- Protein shell
- Viral envelope: surrounding capsid
- limited host range
85
How are viruses replicated?
Lytic and Lysogenic
86
What is a temperate phage?
uses both methods of replication
87
What are factors of genetic diversity in prokaryotes?
1) Rapid reproduction (binary fission)
2) mutation; errors in replication
3) Genetic recombination
- Transformation
- transduction
- conjugation
88
What are the functions of the lymphatic system?
- consists of lymphatic vessels and lymphoid organs
1) take up excessive fluid
2) absorb fats
3) defends body against disease
89
What is the flow of the lymph?
1) capillaries
2) vessels
3) thoracic duct or right lymphatic duct
4) subcavian veins
90
What are the types of phagocyte?
1) ordinary phagocyte: engulfs more than once; apoptosis
2) monocytes: develops into macrophages; only kills a couple times
3) macrophages: kills hundreds of times; can absorb some protein coats
91
What is the complement system?
proteins, kills bacterial cells; creates holes in bacteria
92
What are interferons?
call viruses, all cells have receptors; attach to cells
| -cells get infected: signal to other cells @ how to prevent infecting and others leave
93
What is the difference between primary and secondary immune response and active and passive immunity?
1st time
2nd time
naturally after infection or immunization
short lived and newborns
94
Name some types of neuron structures
- multipolar: ☀⎯‹
- bipolar: ›⎯❍⎯‹
- unipolar: ›⎯¶⎯‹
