APA2302 midterm review Flashcards
Where did the biathlon start? What was the purpose of it? Which country used it in world war 2?
Norway
It was created to be a military exercise
Finland used it against russia
What is the definition of sportifacts?
who won what, where, and by how much?
What is the definition of sport history?
The study of change, or the lack of change, over time
What is the difference between microhistory and macrohistory?
Microhistory
Historical study or interpretation about
one very specific event, context, or time
period
Macrohistory
Historical study or interpretation of a
broad time period, global perspective,
using big data, attempting to paint a
wide picture of the past and its
interpretation
What is the definition of sport?
What are 4 key characteristics of sport?
“institutionalised competitive activities that
involve vigorous physical exertion or the
use of relatively complex physical skills by
participants motivated by intrinsic and
extrinsic rewards” (Coakley, 2003)
Socially constructed
Governing body
Competitive
Institutionalized (standardized rules,
regulatory agencies, formal play/sport,
technical aspects are important)
What is the difference between play and dramatic spectacle?
Play: involves expressive activity done for its own sake and is often spontaneous
Dramatic spectacle: involves performances designed to entertain an audience for the purposes of obtaining rewards
What is the definition of physical activity?
What are the 4 main types of physical activity?
Physical activity as any bodily movement
produced by skeletal muscles that requires
energy expenditure. (WHO, 2021)
Transport, recreational, working, and
domestic (Nolin, 2014)
What is the similarity and difference between sport and physical activity?
PA is socially constructed, like sport, and
shaped by the field of health
Definition, meaning, and legitimacy are
constantly debated
Less contested activities than sports
What are 6 key characteristics of pre-modern sport?
not very organized
simple rules based on local traditions
local competition but no more
low role differentiation
limited public information
no statistical record
What are 6 key characteristics of modern sport?
Formally organized (local, regional, national)
Standardized rules
National and international competition
high role differentiation
information public reported often
detailed statistical record
What are 5 reasons that sporting history is important?
Sporting memory for a specific group, nation, etc.
Evidence to set events in their contexts, explain forces/reasons for why events occurred
Gives us perspective – trends and fluctuations (not everything is important forever)
Benchmarks to measure progress (or lack thereof)
Gives us a sense of where sport may be headed (the sporting past has shaped the
present)
What is the definition of a primary source?
Documents, materials, etc. that come from
the time period you are studying
From the horses’ mouth, so to speak
What is the definition of a secondary source?
Sources that have been written about the
time period or event of interest
Influenced by interpretation of those
producing the sources, the time in which
they are produced, etc.
What is the definition of historiography?
Understanding and analyzing historical sources and the role of the sources
What is the definition of a tertiary source?
Sources that identify and locate primary
and secondary sources
E.g. bibliographies, indexes, etc.
**Note: secondary and tertiary sources are
not mutually exclusive!
What is the difference between descriptive and interpretive history?
Changes that happened
vs.
the interpretation of those changes
What is positionality?
Describes an individual’s worldview
Describes how the individual approaches a task/topic, and its social and political context
Social science is rarely value-free – we always bring ourselves to a project, discussion, or
topic
Positionality is complex, and it can take time to learn about yourself and your beliefs/understandings of the world
What is the “sport as it was” approach?
“Sport as it was” is an example of descriptive history, where historians try to determine the facts “as they were” (i.e., the one truth). This is in contrast to interpretive history, which typically takes the approach that there is not only one truth, but multiple histories because of different perspectives/experiences/etc
What is the difference between the past and history?
‘The past’ is completed and can never be changed, but ‘history’ is the ongoing discussion of trying to explain the past and is open to change and revision.
Is there objective truth in sport history?
There is no objective “truth” necessarily
History is about interpretation, understanding the past through our own unique lenses and
theories
What is the difference between social history and cultural history?
Social history – modernization and technological
advancement = human progress
Study of social mechanisms which govern human relations and events
Cultural history - postmodernism (no objective
truth/reality, technology ≠ vehicle of progress, no
cause & effect)
Study of peoples’ beliefs, understandings, motivations
What philosophy is conflict theory typically associated with?
What are 6 key points of this philosophy?
Conflict theory is typically associated with Marxism/neo-Marxism
Society is a system of structures & relationships shaped by economic forces
The root of much of his theory is that history is determined by social and cultural conflict
Class conflict is his central focus
Central to Marxism is the critique of capitalism and the mode of production
Capitalists exploit the labour of the proletariat (working classes)
This creates the class conflict:
1) one group controlling production
2) the other selling their labour (which they don’t control)
What were the 6 contributions of Max Weber to conflict theory?
He argues that capitalism was born of Protestant
Puritanism in the United States
■ Success generated through one’s work showed their special place in God’s eyes
■ Wealth wasn’t supposed to be the reward but
rather proof of their hard work and dedication,
and in turn, would lead to their place in heaven
Religious focused lessened, drive for material gain remained
Capitalism is the unending quest for “more”
Spending, production, profit, etc.
Leads to “goal-rational action” where people are driven by capitalist goals
According to Weber, conflict is not only economic, but about ideas as well
How is the conflict theory of Marx and Weber related to sport?
Sports are studied in terms of how they promote economic exploitation and capitalist expansion
Marx and Weber have inspired significant discussion and thinking about sport in society.
Marx:
How does sport reproduce social class conflict and division?
Do some forms of sport exploit athletes?
Weber:
Life (and therefore sport) as goal-oriented
Sport as performance driven, straying too far from play and spontaneity?
What are 3 weaknesses of conflict theory?
All social life is not “economically determined”
Does not place enough emphasis on gender, race & ethnicity, age, & other factors in social life
Is often so concerned about conflict, does not see where creativity exists, where play exists, where the joys of sport (and arguably aspects of capitalism) exist
What is the core tenet of critical theory?
At its core, critical theories are focused on power and inequality, and challenge us to question why things are the way they are
Nothing is “normal”, normalcy is a construct
Much of this theoretical perspective started with language
Language is not absolute, or natural; it is socially and culturally constructed
What are 4 societal narratives that critical theory questions?
Critical theory challenges grand narratives of society;
Male dominance (patriarchy)
White superiority
Ableism
History—as if there is only one correct history
We can extend this way of thinking about “what is normal” to all aspects of our social world;
Rational world vs irrational: who defines rational?
Civilized vs uncivilized? Western supremacy, inferior other—the east
What are 4 ways that critical theory relates to sports?
Struggles over the organization & meaning of sports
The narratives and images people use to construct and give meaning to sports
Whose voices and perspectives are used in
narratives about sports in society
How dominant narratives, images, and power
relations can be disrupted to promote progressive change
What is the definition of culture?
What are the 2 main influences of cultural studies?
Culture is the “symbolic forms and the everyday
practices through which people express and experience meaning” (Hall et al., 1991, p. 31)
Cultural studies have two main influences:
Antonio Gramsci and his perspectives on power, most notably idea of hegemony
Hegemony offers new ways of thinking of resistance, human agency and coercion
Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies
Interested not only in “high” culture (literature, arts, etc.) but also “mass” culture (popular music, television, sport, etc.)
What is the definition of hegemony?
Why does it succeed?
What is it a combination of?
“domination by a group where their beliefs, expectations, values, worldview become the norm” (Krane, 2018, p. 243)
- Succeeds because the status quo is not
questioned (‘common sense’) - Combination of coercion from dominant group and consent of subordinate group
What is the definition of critical feminist theory?
How does it relate to sport?
Critical feminist theory interrogates the very idea of gender
What are gender norms?
What are the power structures that perpetuate these norms and why?
Social life is pervasively gendered
Sports are gendered activities grounded primarily in the values and experiences of men with power and influence
Research focuses how sports reproduce gendered ideas and practices related to physicality, sexuality, and the body
Those who use them study:
How sports are involved in the production of ideas about masculinity and femininity
How women are represented in media coverage of sports
Strategies used by women to resist or challenge dominant gender ideology
What is the definition of critical race theory?
How does it relate to sport?
Centralizing race, while recognizing its relationship with other forms of oppression
Challenging dominant ideologies (objectivity, color-blindness, race-neutrality, meritocracy, etc.)
Concerned with justice and transformation
For those studying sport, this is valuable:
Construction of whiteness as natural, non-raced?
Constructions of performance based racial expectations
Racism in sport
Sport as a platform for racial justice?
What is the definition of critical disability theory?
How does it relate to sport?
Analyzes disability as a cultural, historical, political, and social phenomenon
Focuses on disrupting power relations
Social justice lens
Uncover and describe constructions of disability, and investigate the impacts of these constructions
Those who use this perspective ask;
How are sport systems ableist?
What are societal, structural, etc. barriers for
participation in disability sport?
How does power relate to sport?
(Coakley)
“Just as the dominant class writes history, that same class writes the story of sport”
Explains the multitude of sport “histories”
different locations, cultures, time periods,
personal experiences, etc.
Power = influence over society, including sport
Power must be investigated to understand the variety of sporting experiences
What were the 4 main sporting locations in ancient greece?
Olympia, Nemea, Delphi and Isthmia
What is the difference between naturalistic and anti-naturalistic philosophies on physical education?
- Naturalistic – people should be balanced between body and mind
- Antinaturalistic – the mind is of main importance, the body holds it back
What is the definition of dualism?
Why was it important for the ancient greeks?
- Dualism
- Separation of our existence into two components - mind and body
For the Greeks: mind and body were important – work to develop the mind and a fit physique
What is the definition of humanism?
How does it relate to the ancient greeks?
- Concern for one’s total welfare is central
- For the Greeks: concerned about their existence as humans, much like we are
today, less spiritual than other times in history (middle ages, for instance)
What did the greeks think of their gods?
- Greeks saw their Gods as idealized forms of human existence
- Aesthetically perfect images/depictions of masculinity and femininity, for instance
- Physical activity was a way for people to look like their gods
What were the philosophies of socrates, plato and aristotle on the body
Plato was Socrates’ student
- Both subscribed to dualism, where the mind was more important. and the body held the mind back from its potential
- Therefore, focus on knowledge and intelligence over physical training?
- However, Plato also advocated for a more balanced curriculum (and they were athletes)
- “gymnastics for the body and music for the soul”
- Aristotle – student of Plato
- The body was a valid source of knowledge
- Athletics were important because healthy body = healthy mind,
gymnastics were necessary
What is the definition of arete?
concept that refers to excellence of any kind (athletic, intellectual, spiritual, etc.), moral virtue, and the full realization of potential
- Arete is not something to achieve – it is the striving for excellence/virtue that sets it apart
- Defined slightly differently depending on location (i.e. Sparta – military excellence)
What is the definition of agon?
a meeting place where athletic events are held, evolved over time to include art, music, poetry, etc.
What is the definition of kalokagathia?
importance of developing mind and body in harmony with one another (from early Ionic Athenians)
What was the difference between athens and sprta during ancient greece?
ATHENS
* Culture, architecture, home to philosophers, artists, etc.
* Education through the physical
* By participating in physical education, Athenians developed other virtues
* Education was the responsibility of the family
* Out of shape body = poor education
* Athenian gymnasiums, lavish
SPARTA
* Military power
* Physical training (education of the physical)
* Training was purely for military purposes
* Education was responsibility of the state, focused on
discipline, obedience
* Only the fittest babies were allowed to live, children
began training at 7 years old
* Functional facilities
What were some ideas of how sport originated in ancient greece?
- Evolved from competitions of other eras (Myceanean era, Crete, Phoenicians)
- Mythical origins (Achilles, Odysseus)
- Cult of honouring the dead – “Funeral Games” and linked to religion
- Cult of honouring fertility (Demeter, goddess of fertility)
- Organized as military training
- Inherent urge for competition
What were the four crown games of ancient greece?
What was the circuit of the four crown games called?
What was the schedule of the four games?
If you won all four games, what were you called?
- Olympic Games
- Pythian Games
- Isthmian Games
- Nemean Games
the periodos
Athletes competed in all four over the
four-year cycle
- If you won your event at all competitions, you were the periodonike
When did the olympic games start?
Which god did they honour?
Where were they held?
What did the winner receive?
First held in 776 BC
* Held every four years to honour Zeus
* Held at Olympia
* Winner awarded a garland of olive branch
When did the pythian games start?
Which god did they honour?
Where were they held?
What did the winner receive?
- Second most important Crown Games
(following the Olympics) - Held in the temple of Apollo near Delphi, every four years, late summer
- Started in 582 BC
- Dedicated to Apollo, the God of Fine
Arts - Initially a music festival, then added sport
- Women were allowed to participate in
later years - Winner was crowned a garland of laurel
When did the Isthmian games start?
Which god did they honour?
Where were they held?
What did the winner receive?
Held every two years (right before and right after the Olympics) at a temple near Corinth
* Held in honour of Poseidon, God of the Sea
* Started in 581 BC
* Three age groups
* Women participated later on
* Artistic competitions were included
* Winner was crowned a garland of pines
When did the Nemean games start?
Which god did they honour?
Where were they held?
What did the winner receive?
- Held at a temple for Zeus in Nemea
- Started 8 years after the Isthmian Games
- Dorian culture (not panhellenic)
- Competition between nemean and isthmian games – held every two years in the
same year - Victor awarded a garland of wild celery
How were women involved in greek sport?
- Greek sport focused on men and boys
competing - In Sparta, women did train for the
purposes of bearing healthy children
(Athenians did not approve!) - Women could “participate” in chariot
races if they were rich enough - Heraian Games
- Honoured Goddess Hera, included
footraces and some dancing - Used the stadia in Olympia but races
were shorter - Organized by 16 women, held after
the Olympics
Who were 4 of the GOATS of the ancient greek games?
- Theagenes of Thasos, boxer (won 1,000 + bouts)
- Milo of Croton, wrestler (6 Olympic titles, 26 titles at other Crown Games)
- Leonidas of Rhodes, runner (multiple Olympic wreaths in different categories)
- Gaius Appuleius Diocles, chariot racing (won 1,000+ times and a lot of money!)
What is the definition of hoplitodromos?
race in full armour
What was another name for the olympic games?
Who were they held in honour of?
Where did they take place?
When did they start?
- First and foremost a sacred event –
the “sacred” games - Held in honour of Zeus
- Occurred in Olympia (sanctuary of
Olympia), within the city-state of Elis - Origin is attributed to 776 BC
- Recorded evidence beginning at
that time - Lack of alternative date
What is the definition of ekecheiria
- Sacred treaty or pact ensuring safe passage
- NOT an Olympic truce
Who fought over the temple of olympia?
Elis and Pisa constantly fought over it
Pisa controlled the Games in 748, 644, and 364 BC
What is the definition of hellanodikai?
what did they do?
The games were organized and refereed by local officials called hellanodikai
- Only one until 584 BC, then eventually grew to 12
What time of year were the olympic games held?
- Held during full moon following summer solstice, (second half of July or August)
- Means of counting the years
What was the first ever event of the olympic games?
How many spectators attended the games?
- The Games started with one day and one event (the stadion race) and ultimately grew over time to 5 days. No new events added after 200 BC
- 40,000 spectators from all over Greece and overseas colonies
What did the 5 day schedule of the ancient olympics look like?
- Five-day schedule started at the beginning of the 5th Century BC
- Day 1: Opening ceremonies, boys’ competitions, contests for heralds and
trumpeters - Day 2: The interesting stuff – four-horse chariot race, horse racing, pentathlon
- Day 3: Religious ceremonies, sacrifices, and feast
- Day 4: More interesting stuff – foot races, boxing, wrestling, pankration
- Day 5: Closing ceremonies
What is the definition of a stadion race?
What were the games named after?
- Stadion race (1 length of the stadion, or stadium)
- 600 feet, roughly = 180 meters
- The Games were named after the winner
- Only event included in all Ancient Olympic Games
What were 3 different types of races besides the stadion in the ancient olympics?
- Additional foot races:
- 724 BC: The diaulos (2 lengths of the stade)
- 720 BC: The dolichos (8-24 lengths of the stade)
- Longest race in Greek agonistics
- Varied in length, but typically 20-24 lengths (about 3 miles or 4.8km)
- 520 BC: Hoplitodromos (footrace in armor, same distance as diaulos)
- Coincided with timeframe when city-states needed big armies
What is the definition of a husplex?
a sort of starting gate for the runners
* Runners were punished (flogged) for false start
What were other contested sports of the olympic games?
- Pentathlon
- Consisted of 5 events: long jump, discus throw, javelin, stade race, wrestling
- Wrestling
- Both added in 688 BC
- 680 BC: Chariot Racing, and 648 BC:
Horseback Racing (hippic races) - 648 BC: Pankration
- Mixture of boxing and wrestling
- Boxing
What is the definition of gymastes?
specialized coach
What happened if you won the games?
- Winners received modest prizes, but were showered with gifts upon their return home à
prestige and honour - “the second goes home in shame”
- Stele could be sculpted in winner’s honour and kept in the temple area
- Zanes statues to memorialize the shame of some participating
Who were some notable athletes of the olympic games?
Cyniska of Sparta, Spartan Princess
Milo of Croton, wrestler
Leonidas of Rhodes, runner
Theagenes of Thasos, boxer (and other sports, too!)
What are the 2 main theories regarding the decline of the olympic games?
- 2 main theories:
1. Professionalization of the Games
2. Influence of the Roman Empire - Both are questionable;
- No real distinction between professional/amateur in ancient Greece
- Games were held for 500+ years under Roman rule
What was rising in society as the olympics were going down in popularity?
- Due to the rise of Christianity
- Games were seen as sacrilegious due to worship of pagan gods
- Games activities were seen as outside the realm of Christian morality
- Unclear which Christian emperor of Byzantium ended the Games
- Byzantium = late Roman empire (late antiquity through middle ages)
- Earthquakes in Pelopponesia in 522 and 551 AD damaged and covered much of what was left of Olympia
What are 5 parallels between the ancient games and the modern games?
the events they competed in
the structure of the events
the olympic truce
spectacle, social event, heroism
the torch relay
What is the definition of himantes?
ancient greek boxing
How was ancient Rome influence by ancient Greece?
■ Roman Republic 500 BC onward
■ Roman era of Ancient Greece began in 146 BC
■ Roman Empire established 27 BC – 476 AD
■ Greek influence on Ancient Roman Empire
– Nero, emperor 54-68 AD
– LOVED Greece, arts, literature, poetry, etc.
– Lavish, rich life
– Competed in the Olympic Games in 67 AD
What is the difference between ancient greece and ancient rome?
Ancient Greece
■ Cultural genius, focus on arts,
education, etc.
■ Aesthetic, abstract, harmonious
approach to life
■ Human-like Gods (e.g., Zeus)
Ancient Rome
■ Few philosophical, scientific developments
■ Incredible civil engineers
■ Pragmatic, utilitarian, results-oriented
■ Human-like Gods, similar to Greek ones with different names (e.g., Jupiter)
■ Romans who liked Greek sport were
typically wealthy and literate classes
– Late republic and early empire
Who created the ancient roman perspective on physical activity?
Claudius Galen
– One of the first to practice sports medicine, incorporated biomechanics
■ Studied under certain philosophical schools at the time, became well-versed in the healing arts, drugs, surgical techniques
■ Reputation for his ability to treat Gladiators
■ Believed that “the best gymnastic exercises of all are those which not only exercise the
body but also bring delight to the mind”; believed Greek athletics more beneficial then
Roman approach
How was physical activity done by ancient roman citizens?
■ Physical education and activity was enjoyed by all citizens,
■ Ball games based on throwing and catching were popular
■ Roman baths (thermae)
■ Mild exercise was popular, not vigorous activity like in Greece
■ Roman Empire
– Sport evolved into large spectacles and events of debauchery and carnage
– Wealthy Romans accepted PA for health, doctors
became versed in suggesting health—related exercise
What is the definition of ludi?
public games held for entertainment
– Held in conjunction with or as feature of Roman religious festivals
What is the definition of “opiate of the masses”
Official sport events and spectacle hosted and paid for by the government
– “Opiate of the masses”
■ Romans grew into a nation of spectators – professional athletes and slaves as participants; prisoners, others may have been forced to compete for entertainment
■ Many public holidays and festivals instituted by Roman emperors, many included
spectacles and Games (by AD 300, 200 days were dedicated to public holidays)
Where did chariot racing take place?
Took place in the hippodrome (Circus Maximus was the largest)
What is the definition of munera?
In ancient Rome, munera were public works and events provided for the benefit of the Roman people by individuals of high status and wealth in honour of a specific person.
What was the circus maximus?
When was it built?
How big was it?
How many people could it hold?
When was it’s last race?
Hippodrome
■ Built around 6th C BC
■ 2000 feet by 600 feet
(approx. 610m x 180m)
■ Upwards of 250,000 spectators
■ Last chariot race was in AD 599
What is the definition of autorati?
free men who wanted to be gladiators
What were the 2 most famous gladiator schools?
Pompeii and Capua
What was the paradox of gladiators in ancient rome?
Gladiators – paradox in Ancient Rome
– Admired by many for their skill and bravery
– At the same time, ambivalent towards them
Did the growth of christianity help or hinder sport in ancient rome?
Growth of Christianity severely impacted sport
■ Not opposed to health of the body, but were opposed to the brutality of Roman spectacle
– Christians may have been the victims of some entertainment/spectacle
■ Rise of Christianity put an end to Greek athletic festivals, gladiator combat, animal
slaughters
– Chariot racing remained
What is the definition of a hypogeum?
an underground chamber, specifically under the amphitheatre in ancient rome
Why are orange shirts worn of truth and reconciliation day?
orange shirt as a symbol of stripping away of culture, freedom, and self-esteem experienced by Indigenous children over generations
Orange shirt day is an Indigenous-led grassroots commemorative day intended to raise
awareness of the individual, family, and community inter-generational
trauma of residential schools
When did residential schools start?
Who funded residential schools?
How long did they operate for?
When did the last school close?
Federal residential school system started in 1883, origins traced back to 1830s, linked to Anglican church
Churches built schools specifically for Indigenous children since mid 1600s
Federally-funded, church-run
Operated for more than 160 years
Peak in 1931 – 80 schools in operation
Last school closed in 1996 in Saskatchewan
Which 3 tribes were affected by residential schools?
First Nations, Inuit, and Métis
What is the double helix in relation to aboriginal sport?
Aboriginal sport and mainstream sport as two
independent, parallel, equally legitimate sport systems which are connected at times through shared activities
Separate choices for sporting activities are available to Indigenous participants, connectedness between the two systems
Who was involved in the truth and reconciliation legal settlement?
What was required?
Residential school survivors
Assembly of First Nations
Inuit Representatives
The Federal Government and Church bodies
Mandate to inform all Canadians about what happened in residential schools
What were the 5 calls to action in the truth and reconciliation that related to sport?
- We call upon all levels of government, in collaboration with Aboriginal peoples, sports halls of fame, and other relevant organizations, to provide public education that tells the national story of Aboriginal athletes in history.
- We call upon all levels of government to take action to ensure long-term Aboriginal athlete development and growth, and continued support for the North American Indigenous Games, including funding to host the games and for provincial and territorial team preparation and
travel. - We call upon the federal government to amend the Physical Activity and Sport Act to support reconciliation by ensuring that policies to promote physical activity as a fundamental element of health and well-being, reduce
barriers to sports participation, increase the pursuit of excellence in sport, and build capacity in the Canadian sport system, are inclusive of Aboriginal peoples. - We call upon the federal government to ensure that national sports policies, programs, and initiatives are inclusive of Aboriginal peoples, including, but not limited to, establishing:
i. In collaboration with provincial and territorial
governments, stable funding for, and access to,
community sports programs that reflect the diverse cultures and traditional sporting activities of Aboriginal peoples.
ii. An elite athlete development program for Aboriginal athletes.
iii. Programs for coaches, trainers, and sports officials that are culturally relevant for Aboriginal peoples.
iv. Anti-racism awareness and training programs. - We call upon the officials and host countries of international sporting events such as the Olympics, Pan Am, and Commonwealth games to ensure that Indigenous peoples’ territorial protocols are respected, and local Indigenous communities are engaged in all aspects of planning and participating in such events.
What is the definition of baggataway?
a Canadian Indian game from which lacrosse developed
What is the significance of lacrosse to first nations people?
Lacrosse was a first nations game for the creator, medicine game, spiritual meaning within communities
When was the fall of the roman empire?
What time period was the dark ages?
Were there sports in the dark ages?
What time period was the middle ages?
Fall of Western Roman Empire
(476 AD)
Dark Ages: 476 AD-900
-Organized sport and physical activity were virtually non-existent
Middle Ages: 900-1400
Was the social structure during medieval times?
Feudal
Ecclesiastics (monks, priests, etc.)
Knights, noblemen, lords
Peasant-serfs
Serfs “rented” their land from lords
Rent and taxes in the form of agricultural products and services
Long, arduous work days
Some, very little, leisure times of Sundays after church
What were 5 key characteristics of the dark ages?
¡ Directly following fall of Western Roman Empire
¡ Dark, chaotic time
¡ People fled Rome and sought protection – walled cities and castles designed for protection
¡ Wars between knights and feudal armies
¡ Very little scientific, intellectual advancement
What were 3 key characteristics of the middle ages?
Emergence from the cultural, intellectual “darkness”
Trade and commerce revived, a market economy emerged
Metaphysical, philosophical questions emerged, people turned to religion
-The church provided guidance and stability
-Temples for Judaism, Mosques for those practicing Islam (common in middle East, Spain, Northern Africa)
-Christianity was dominant in Europe in the Middle Ages
What is the definition of inquisition?
Roman Catholic Church aimed to convert everyone to Catholicism
Inquisition – a religious movement designed to convert non-believers to Christianity, by force if necessary
Who were early medieval philosophies based off of?
Early medieval philosophies were built primarily on Plato and Aristotle
Both were interested in concepts of Christianity – existence of the soul, belief in God, nature of being/existence, how people should live their lives
Early Christian writers attempted to reconcile differences between Greek and Christian theology
Tried to prove the existence of God using philosophy
What were the competing views of the body during middle ages?
Competing views of the body:
If God is everywhere (including the body), then the body filled with God was good
Early Christian church (monks), various streams of Roman Catholicism saw the body as vile and corrupt
Inconsistent view of the body given these competing ideas
What is the definition of ascetic dualism?
Ascetic dualism: belief that the human body should be denied pleasure in order to purify the soul
Perspectives that the body was Godly were wiped out by the bubonic plague (14th C), suffering and death.
The body = sin
-Against “pleasures of the flesh” à no physical activity, education, etc.
Who were the scholastics in middle ages?
Most Christians did not glorify the body, however the Scholastics did not abandon the body, saw value in physical activity
Scholastics: group of medieval Christian thinkers who tried to harmonize Christian thought with that of classical era, drew on Aristotle’s work and support from those who saw the body as Godly and good.
Saw value in physical activity, argued for a close relationship between mind-body instead of highlighting differences between the two
¡ Some prominent scholastics: St. Thomas Aquinas, Moses Maimonides, St. Bonaventure
Who were some prominant scholastics in middle ages?
ST. THOMAS AQUINAS
Greatest of medieval Scholastics
Embraced physical activity and recreation as a way to promote social and moral well-being
MAIMONIDES
¡ Jewish philosopher and physician
¡ “nothing is more useful for the preservation of the health than physical exercise”
BONAVENTURE
¡ The body does not imprison the soul but is a friend and companion, and
therefore the individual exists as a natural union of body and soul
How did Galen contribute to the middle ages?
¡ Remember Galen?
¡ Greek physician of 2nd C. AD Rome
¡ Contributed significantly to understanding of anatomy and physiology
¡ Dissections!
¡ De Medicina
¡ From Hippocrates (ancient Greece): Four essential humors: blood, phlegm, black bile, yellow bile
¡ Balanced in a healthy body, predominantly is certain areas, and some more than others at certain times of life
¡ Root of medical treatment at the time
What was the bayeux tapestry?
¡ Woven around 1070 AD, 20 inches wide, about 70 metres long
¡ Depicts events leading up to Norman conquest of England in 1066
¡ Primary source of information about sporting activities in England during the Middle Ages
¡ Demonstrates numerous sporting activities – archery, hunting, hawking, fishing, fencing, jousting, etc.
What were the definition of soule and kegels during the middle ages?
Soule: ball game similar to modern day soccer, popular amongst peasants
¡ Indeterminate, but even # of men on each side
¡ Violent game where the goal was possession of a leather ball to score
¡ Often resulted in injury or loss of property
¡ Kegels: similar to bowling
¡ Eventually the church banned ball games like these due to violence and
“immoral” behaviour
Who was able to participate in sports during the middle ages?
¡ Wealth of the aristocracy came from labour of others, so leisure time was for the rich,
“the unique commodity of nobles”
¡ Distinction between recreation and leisure pursuits of different classes was a product of
medieval social structure
What were the 2 key sports during medieval tournaments?
¡ Jousting:
¡ Two mounted horsemen charged at
each other with lances
¡ Melee:
¡ Hand-to-hand combat with dull
swords
¡ Horseback or on foot
What was the definition of jeu de paume?
¡ Le jeu de paume
¡ A sort of handball/tennis played in an enclosure
¡ Spread across Europe, evolved over time to modern day
Did women participate in sports during the middle ages?
¡ Some sports and activities, yes
¡ Likely wealthy women
¡ Women spectated tournaments as
well
Why was the body considered sinful during the middle ages?
The body was mortal and therefore little use for eternal salvation, therefore the best chance at salvation is to “rise above the body
What did the renaissance mean during the middle ages?
When did it begin?
When did the reformation happen?
¡ Transition from middle ages to modernity
¡ Renaissance = “rebirth”
¡ Began around 1400 in Florence, Italy; spread
around 1500 to the rest of Europe
¡ Reformation: reform of the Church, ~1517
What were some key ideas of the renaissance?
Why did it take place in florence?
Shift in worldview to more focus on earthly living instead of afterlife and spirituality
¡ Reintroduction of ancient Roman and Greek
thought
¡ But why Florence?
¡ Ruling family the Medicis supported the
arts
¡ Luck? Leonardo Da Vinci, Botticelli,
Michelangelo were born there
What were the 3 main ideas of humanism during the renaissance?
How was this different than the middle ages?
- Admired Greek and Romans, sought to
understand the philosophy of classics - Emphasized the joy of living, sought to
enjoy their bodily lives - Corporeal life was worth contemplating
¡ Belief that the soul and the body are one
¡ Rejected concept of bodily sin, and ascetic dualism of Early Christian monks
¡ Renaissance man was the ideal
What is the definition of a renaissance man?
Who were 2 prominent examples?
¡ “universal man” or uomo universal
¡ Man who could do anything; physical pursuits, art, language, architecture, etc. learnt through education
¡ Based on humanism
¡ Two particular examples: Leon Battista Alberti and Leonardo Da Vinci
Who was the main person behind the reformation and why did it happen?
How did it relate to the body?
¡ Middle Ages and Renaissance, the Church had a strong hold on society
¡ People paid to be relieved of their sins (indulgences)
¡ Martin Luther rejected this idea and suggested that people could be relieved of their sin through their faith
¡ Focused on the individual, instead of using the Church to forgive sins
¡ Some activity was OK for adults (dancing, etc.) because it was better than the alternative, but PE couldn’t take away from actual education
¡ Commerce and industry expanded, people moved to cities, emphasis on education
¡ The body could be used to “compel a reluctant mind”
Who were the main philosophers of the renaissance era?
¡ Vittorino da Feltre (1378-1446)
¡ Most famous of the Italian humanists
¡ Taught children at La Giacosa
¡ Blended Christianity and Physical Education concepts from the Greeks
¡ One of the first to incorporate physical education as part of the overall curriculum
¡ Aeneas Silvio Piccolomini (1405-1464)
¡ Education was for children of the rich
¡ Should be taught archery, how to ride horses, swim, etc. to be good soldiers
¡ Interested in total well-being, instilling habits for life-ling activity
¡ Martin Luther (1483-1546)
¡ 95 theses posted on the Whittenburg Church
¡ Believed in the power of individual faith
¡ “play” could not replace actual education (reading, etc.)
¡ Human body should be taken care of, fully depriving oneself is not possible so some games, etc. are OK
¡ John Calvin (1509-1564)
¡ Focused primarily on the soul and the afterlife, importance of the individual
¡ Predestination – measured by dedication to faith, proper behaviour (hard work and prayer, not sport)
¡ Time as linear, so you have to use your time for God
¡ Did not endorse sport and PE! à negative effect on participation that lasted for years
¡ Thomas Elyot (1490-1546)
¡ More like Italian Humanists
¡ Universal Man – you should be well-rounded in arts, science, fighting, etc.
¡ Wrote about physical education, some activities were more acceptable than others (swimming, hunting, running), the body was not for “fun”
¡ Physical education for medical purposes
Who’s philosophy evolved from John Calvin in the renaissance?
Evolved into the Protestant Work Ethic;
Max Weber wrote The Protestant Work
Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism
* Moral goodness could be measured
by work habits
What were the 6 benefits of exercise believed during the middle ages from Thomas Elyot?
6 physiological benefits from exercise:
1. Aided digestion
2. Increased appetite
3. Helped one live longer
4. Warmed the body
5. Raised one’s metabolism
6. Cleansed the body of its wastes
What is a regatta?
Series of Boat races
Historical Regatta, continues to take place on
the first Sunday in September
¡ Started in 1315
¡ Organized to celebrate military victories, pay
homage to dignitaries
¡ Spectators lined the shores
What was the difference between the renaissance and reformation?
Were the activities the same or different than the middle ages?
Who were 4 important figures during this time?
¡ Renaissance = rebirth of cultural and intellectual pursuits from antiquity
¡ Reformation: reform of the church, increased focus on the individual
¡ Similar activities to middle ages, shift in views of physical education and the body
¡ Important figures: Da Vinci, Feltre, Calvin, Luther
What is the double helix in reference to aboriginal sports?
The Double Helix; Aboriginal sport and mainstream sport as two independent, parallel, equally legitimate sport systems which are
connected at times through shared activities
Separate choices for sporting activities are available to Indigenous participants, connectedness between the two systems
What type of organization is the aboriginal sport circle?
Aboriginal Sport Circle; National non-profit organization for Aboriginal sport development, collection of P/T Aboriginal sport organizations, World Indigenous Games, North American
Indigenous Games
Was there any time for lesiure for peasants during the middle ages?
- Some time for leisure, peasants played ball games (soule)
What is the definition of whitestream sport?
“Whitestream” sport: emphasizes that the current sport system is structured by, and for, “individuals who align with white, European values” (Paraschak & Tirone, 2014)
- Canadian sport has been shaped by white, European values, meanings, and traditions
- Example of institutionalized, or systemic racism because the sport system was built to meet the needs of the white, European, privileged elite and discriminate against others
What is the definition of the word aboriginal?
“Aboriginal” is a contemporary term, and often refers to individuals residing in Canada who are First Nations, Métis, or Inuit
There are many different cultures, languages, traditions, etc. within this broad umbrella
What were 5 key points from the sacred stick documentary?
Lacrosse (baggataway) as the creator’s game
a celebration of health, strength, courage, leadership, and fair play, and spiritually as a “medicine” game.
Oldest sport in North America? – documented in 1638
In 1867, a Canadian dentist named George Beers created a standardized set of rules and parameters for lacrosse
Haudenosaunee Nationals (Iroquois Nationals) included as a nation in international competition in 1987
Iroquois was a name given to them during assimilation and colonization, so in 2022
the team changed their name
What was the temperament, element, qualities and characteristics/personality of the blood humour?
sanguine temperament
air element
Hot, moist qualities
Courageous, hopeful, amorous characteristics
What was the temperament, element, qualities and characteristics/personality of the yellow bile humour?
Choleric temperament
Fire element
Hot, dry qualities
Short tempered, ambitious characteristics
What was the temperament, element, qualities and characteristics/personality of the black bile humour?
Melancholy temperament
Earth element
Cold, dry qualities
Introspective, sentimental characteristics
What was the temperament, element, qualities and characteristics/personality of the phlegm humour?
Phlegmatic temperament
Water element
Cold, moist qualities
Calm, unemotional characteristics
How many aboriginal peoples were there when settlers first came?
Aboriginal peoples have lived on this land since time immemorial
Wide estimates of population, anywhere from 8.4 to 112 million people living in the Americas
when Europeans first came to shore
In what would become Canada –upwards of 2 million people
Who were the first contacts between the settlers and the aboriginal peoples?
First-Contacts:
1497 John Cabot took over Newfoundland
1534 Jacques Cartier explored the Gulf of St.
Lawrence, met a group of Mikm’aq in Chaleur Bay, met the Stadaconans in Gaspé Peninsula and kidnapped some of their people
Trips back and forth, further exploration, kidnapping, alliances, etc.
How were play and games unique for aboriginal culture?
Spiritual and cultural connections between the people and the land
Traditional play and games involved honouring ancestors and the Creator
Varied based on geography, group
Strength, endurance, pain tolerance were involved in games as essential aspects of
aboriginal life
Educational for children, preparing them to live off the land
Hunting, spear skills, for the boys, strengths-based activities for girls
No written accounts, only oral histories passed down through families
What was the influence of colonialism on the aboriginals?
1850-1876: key legislation increasing government control over land, measures to protect reserves from encroachment by settlers, decided who was Aboriginal, forced groups to become “more civilized”
1876 – all previous legislation was combined into the Indian Act
-Explicit vision of assimilation
-Aboriginals viewed as children of the state
Amendments in 1885 restricted traditional ceremonies and dances, gatherings
-Sought to replace traditional activities with Euro-Canadian versions of recreation
How were sports used in residential schools?
Physical practices as disciplinary – restrictions on traditional activities, increase in Euro-Canadian sports
Training as a way to address health issues, military training designed to replace tribal allegiances, instill “civilized” behaviour
Late 1940s – Euro-Canadian sports and games could ease assimilation
Gendered nature of activities: girls worked in the kitchen and did laundry, boys work outdoors in barns and stables
Recreation: boys had sport equipment, played outdoors, sports teams. Girls played with dolls, knit, etc. (Miller, 1996)
Women denied opportunity to participate in traditional games, but also Euro-Canadian sports
What were 3 key sports of the indian people?
Snowshoeing
First created and used by Indigenous people
to travel during the winter months
Shape and material was based on geography and group
used by the French in warfare against the
British
Evolved into a recreational activity ~mid- 1800s
Canoeing
Inuit and other indigenous groups
Use of canoes and kayaks for travel, hunting
purposes
European explorers adopted these for ease
of movement
Indian Relay
“the oldest extreme sport in America”
~500 years old, sport is newer
Involves a team of four people, with one jumping from horse to horse
Said to evolve into a sport from war, where people would jump to a new horse when their horse got tired
Spiritual importance of horses
First stampede in 1912 may have included a relay race as well
What were the early origins of hockey?
What is duwarken?
Hockey may have evolved from First Nations in the Maritime region (Mi’kmaq)
Duwarken = “a ball played on ice”
Striker would hit a ball down the ice and one team would try and stop the other from returning the ball to their striker
Mi’kmaq language includes words that hint at the existence of hockey and ice games, and carvers have been associated with making early hockey sticks (1600s)
Origins may be of both Indigenous and British North American practices, cultural contact, and melding of sporting practices and rules
How were aboriginal women involved in sport history?
Traditional Native societies were land-based, minimal contact with Europeans, women had a strong position and role in society
European colonizers realized that in order to control, they needed to disempower women
“Indigenous systems that allocated power to women were incompatible with the kind of colonial power dynamics that would be necessary to maintain colonial power” (Anderson, 2000)
Our view of women’s role in traditional sport has been shaped by outsider views from European colonizers
Shinny a hockey-like ball game was considered a women’s game in a field or on ice in the winter
Lacrosse was mainly a men’s game, however some groups allowed women to play away from the male gaze
Boys and Girls were taught physical skills needed for survival tasks and everyday life, like riding horses
Snowsnake was a game played by women which involved throwing long sticks
Rarely took part in white-organized sport, except for some canoe racing
How were aboriginal women affected by the fur trade?
Traders greeted Europeans with furs to trade for other goods
Two companies responsible for development of the fur trade –Hudson’s Bay Company and North West Company
Intermarriage was fundamental to growth of fur-trade – Aboriginal women married Europeans and provide support and knowledge of
the land, cultural mediators
Children were likely raised to emulate European ideals, wear European clothes, limited participation in traditional Games and
activities
What did Tom Longboat compete in and why was he significant?
Born 1886, died 1949
Onondaga from Six Nations of the Grand River
Internationally known runner, pioneered training
methods
Won the Boston Marathon in 1907 with a course
record of 2 hours, 24 minutes, competed at 1908
Olympic Games
Training style – alternated with hard workouts, recovery, and easier runs
Likely inherited training style from his Indigenous community
Long-distance running was an essential part of Onondaga and Haudenosaunee communities
Criticized by journalists for his training, racist remarks
-Lou Marsh, for one (Lou Marsh Trophy is being renamed in 2022)
What sport did Harry Manson play and what did he accomplish?
Snuneymuxw First Nation of the Coast
Salish People
Soccer player in the late 1800s-early 1900s
One of first Indigenous player to appear in a
provincial match (1898), first to win a provincial title (1903)
2014 – first Indigenous player inducted into the Canadian Soccer Hall of Fame
2015 – Inducted into Canada’s Sports Hall
of Fame
What sport did Alex Decoteau compete in and what did he accomplish?
Born 1887, died in 1917 (Battle of
Passchendaele)
Red Pheasant Cree Nation near North
Battleford, Saskatchewan
Successful runner, winning multiple races in
Calgary
Competed in the 1912 Olympics in
Stockholm, placed 6th overall in the 5000m
Which provinces were included in british north america?
“British North America” typically referring to British colonies and territories between 1783 and 1867 (confederation)
- Initially included Quebec, Nova Scotia, St. John’s Island (PEI), Newfoundland, Hudson’s Bay Company territories (e.g., Vancouver Island), crown land
- Cape Breton Island and New Brunswick as separate colonies in 1784
- Province of Quebec – divided into Upper (West) and Lower (East) Canada in 1791
Which groups of people were part of British north america?
- Aboriginal groups, English, French, Irish, Scots, Loyalists
- Loyalists;
- Supported the Britain cause during the American Revolutionary War, thousands immigrated to the Americas during and after the war
What was the seigneurial system?
- Company of One Hundred Associates had control of most land in order to promote colonization and support missionaries
- Seigneurial system
- Granted tracts of land to landholders, who then rented the land to settlers
- Land along St. Lawrence, built mills, churches, etc.
- Renters (habitants) helped build roads, provided military service to the Crown
- Hard, physical labour - strength became incredibly important, masculinity was integral to the skills valued in society
- Family-based culture – you were very close to your neighbors!
- Bonded through celebrations, weddings, signing, drinking, card games, etc
Who were the 2 main parties that fought in the 7 year war within Canada?
What was this war the foundation of?
What were some other key facts about the results of the 7 year war?
- 7 years war – 1756-1763
- Global war, fought in Europe, Americas, India, at sea
- In Canada, it was France vs. Britain
- Early years, the French had some success, ultimately ceding Canada to the British in 1763
(Treat of Paris), and mostly leaving the continent - Foundations of bicultural Canada (French and English)
- Post- 7 years war (1763), British had control of Montreal, Quebec, Trois-Rivieres
- Aboriginal territories became more compressed, disease continued to be an issue
- Loyalists immigrated from the US and assumed land ownership à spike in population
- Supported by legislation
- Fur trade: voyageurs and bourgeois from North West Company dominated the North, displaced Aboriginal travelers
What were some key characteristics of the voyageurs?
- Voyageurs worked for the bourgeois, doing all physical labour of the northern fur trade
- Worked harsh winter conditions so considered themselves more hearty
- Notoriety was based on physical ability, distance covered, masculine identity was
connected to labour and intense rivalries formed - Raced with heavy loads, going further than needed out of sheer competition
- Competitions of strength, fist fights, races, brawling, drinking, etc. desensitized
men to the physical work needed of the job - Fur trade merchants formed the Beaver Club in Montreal, 1785 distancing themselves from labourers and women
What were key social areas post-conquest/pre-confederation?
- Tavern, club, and garrison (military post) – most important social institutions of the era, where sports and games occurred
- Demonstrated the relationship between English, French, Scots, Loyalists, Irish, and Aboriginals
- Played, competed, drank, fought for money, fun and pride
Any military post where soldiers gather to
protect the area
- Protection
- Economic and social value
- Membership in local societies
How was social control used post-conquest?
- Settlement, conquest, removal of Aboriginal peoples altered indigenous games and dances
– euro-Canadians tried to limit these or put them on display - Immigrants brought their own games and social traditions
- English formed governing bodies to regulate behaviour, land ownership, trade, religion,
etc. - Christianity and civil rules were invoked through legislation and bylaws
What were the main targets in legislation for public nuisance?
- Public houses (“pubs”), inn, grogg shop, were the main targets of legislation
- Once a place to rest, eat, if you were a traveller
- Evolved to a place for socializing, drinking, gambling, fighting, playing,
- Many, many taverns, incredible popularity – opportunity for revenue
What was the definition of “sin taxes”?
“sin taxes” = taxes levied on goods deemed harmful to society and individuals
* Way for the government to make money
* Gambling also regulated as it challenged typical ways of making money that maintained class structure
* Licences needed for billiard tables
What is the definition of moral codes?
Main theme: “moral codes”
How people spent their time, how they did certain activities were tied to morality
How did legislation control pastimes in british north america?
- Government had direct regulatory and financial interests in how people spent their leisure time
- Agricultural societies, agricultural fairs
- Legislation against cards, dice, tennis, bowls, shooting off fireworks, all of which were considered “idle” behaviour
- Class division – clubs and private dwellings of the elite provided shelter from public scrutiny, but they were quick to scrutinize others
- Hunting and fishing – legislation controlled land, lakes, rivers, etc. defined hunting seasons
- Canada became a hunting destination for tourists, large parcels of land for wealthy men
- Laws = maintained class order. Wealthy men were considered more civilized, rational, responsible than aboriginals, for instance
What was the use of trading posts and garrisons?
- Male-dominated spaces, sports and games were used as a distraction and to alleviate boredom and for holidays
- Yok Factory late 1700s-mid 1800s
- Football and fist fighting were very popular
- Gambling on outcomes of the football matches
- Military men at Garrisons planned, attended horse racing, organized cricket matches, foot races, curling, regattas, for themselves and eventually the town people as well
- Offered organizational expertise for sporting events in nearby cities
- Clubs were spaces for men to pursue economic and political interests amongst men, creating a divide between men/women
When was the first sporting club established in british north america and where was it located?
First sporting club: the Montreal Curling Club in 1807
* Formed by Scottish fur traders
* Fraternal organization created as a “sporting” club
* Curling clubs established in Halifax, Kingston, Quebec, Fergus, Toronto, Milton Guelph, and more before 1840
* Montreal – the cradle, or birthplace of Canadian sport also had a hunt club and cricket club
* Cricket grew in popularity in 1830 and spread throughout the country where ex-military and garrisons lived
* Elites used cricket to promote stability, “appropriate” games in the colonies
What was the opinion on alcohol in british north america?
- Stricter alcohol laws, alcohol seen as the cause of poverty and crime. Less alcohol = more
productive, employable society - Limited licences for bars/pubs, restricted hours, liabilities of tavern owners, etc.
- Poorly enforced, however – lots of unlicensed establishments, entertainment organized by
tavern owners - Boxing matches, cock-fighting, bog fights, billiards, cards
- Provided entertainment from the monotony of daily work
- Women were chastised for visiting taverns, so gender divides prevailed
How was organized sport created in british north america?
- Garrisons played a large role in developing organized sport pre-confederation
- Middle class men created sporting clubs where appropriate manliness could be displayed,
which further divided genders - In Montreal, by 1860 organized sports were a major part of the social and cultural
landscape
What is the definition of bourgeouis?
The adjective bourgeois means relating to or typical of the middle class
