APA 3121 Flashcards
Development
- is a continuous process of change in functional capacity
- related to age
- involves sequential changes
Motor development
continuous age-related process of change in movement and constraints that drive these changes
motor learning
relatively permanent changes in motor skill capability associated with practice or experience
motor control
study of the neural, physical, and behavioural aspects of mvt
Physical growth
increase in size or body mass resulting from an increase in complete, already formed body parts
physical maturation
qualitative advance in biological make-up, can refer to cell, organ, or system advancement in biochemical composition
aging
process occurring with passage of time that leads to loss of adaptability or full function
Newell’s constraint model
- to understand mvt we must consider individual, environmental, and tasks constraints relationships
- helps us identify: developmental factors affecting mvt, create appropriate tasks and environments, and understand individuals movers as different from group norms/avgs
individual constraints
- unique physical and mental characteristics
- structural relate to body structure
- functional relate to behavioural function
environmental constraints
- relate to the world around us
- global rather than task specific, can be physical or socio-cultural
task contraints
the goals and rule structure of a movement or activity
developmental trajectory
is the course of behaviour over time
arrested development
is a failure to develop beyond a certain point of development
longitudinal study
study where the same individual or group are observed performing the same tasks or behaviours on numerous occasions over a long period of time
cross sectional study
different individuals of different ages are observed at the same point in time
universality
we show great similarity in development in that we go through many of the same changes
variability
any individual we observe is more likely to be above or below avg, or to achieve a milestone earlier or later than avg
maturation perspective
believes that genetics are primarily responsible for motor development
very little effect from environment
info processing perspective
described motor behaviour in terms of a computer like system that occur as a result of some external environmental input
ecological perspective
stresses the interrelationships between the individual, enviro, and task
maturation perspective (1930’s)
motor development is an internal process driven by a biological or genetic time clock
- the enviro may speed or slow process of change, but it cannot change one’s biological determined course
- believed development ended at the end of puberty
normative descriptive period
- education more concerned with tests and norms
- described child’s average performance in terms of scores
- product over process
biomechanical descriptive period
described skill mvt patterns of children across development
- identify the course of age related, sequential improvements in attaining efficient mvt patterns
info processing (1970’s)
- brain acts like computer
- emphasis of formation of stimulus response bonds, feedback, and knowledge of results
- an executive function is thought to decide all actions, based on calculations of perceptual info
dynamical systems approach (ecological perspective)
- structural organization of your body encourages- constrains- you to walk
- body’s structure removes some of the movement choices made my CNS
- coordinated behaviour is softly assembled
- body’s systems do not develop at same rate
ecological perspective
- development of many systems rather than only one across a life span
- perception of the environment is direct, and muscles self- assemble into groups, reducing number of decisions needed to be made by higher brain powers
perception action approach
close interrelationship between perceptual and motor systems
rate limiter
individual constraint or system that holds back or slows emergence of motor skill bc it develops slower
affordance
act of perceiving the function that an object will allow, based on one’s own body and on the object size, shape, etc.
genetic factors
drive a very orderly pattern of growth and aging
- we know what to expect
extrinsic factors
ex nutrition and disease
- outside factors affecting growth
prenatal development
growth begins the instant an egg and sperm fuse in fertilization
prenatal growth
embryonic growth- conception to 8 weeks
fetal growth- 8 weeks to birth
- growing embryos are very sensitive to extrinsic factors
embryonic development
4 weeks- the limbs begin to form and the heart beat begins
8 weeks - eyes, ears, mouth, fingers, and toes are formed
differentiation
process where in cells become specialized, forming specific tissues and organs
hyperplasia
increase in the absolute number of cells
hypertrophy
increase in the relative size of an individual cell
cephalocaudal (way of direction of growth)
head to toe
proximodistal (second direction of growth)
torso towards the extremities
fetal nourishment
- most influential extrinsic factor on development
- diffusion of o2 and nutrients between fetal and mothers blood
- co2 and byproducts are carried away in mothers blood
- if nutrients and o2 are short in supply the mother and fetus compete for resources
abnormal development
genetic abnormalities are inherited
-can be immediately apparent or can be undetected into postnatal growth
extrinsic factors of abnormal development
- drugs or chemicals in mothers blood
- viruses in mothers blood
- excessive pressure applied on mothers abdomen
congenital defects
present at birth, regardless of whether their causes were genetic or extrinsic
dominant disorders
one parent passes on a defective gene
recessive disorder
inherit a defective gene from both parents
genetic causes
- mutation reflects the changing or deletion of a gene during formation of egg or sperm cell
- can result in single or multiple malformations of an organ, limb, or body region
taratogen
any drug or chemical agent that causes abnormal prenatal development upon exposure
other prenatal extrinsic factors
- extreme internal pressure
- extreme internal environmental temp
- exposure to xray or gamma rays
- changes in atmospheric pressure
-environmental pollutants
sigmoid curve
- roughly s shaped
- rapid growth after birth
- steady growth during childhood
- rapid growth during adolescence
- levels off into adulthood
sex diffs
girls begin adolescent growth spurt at around 9 and boys get it at around 11
age at takeoff
age at which rate of growth begins to increase
rate of growth (velocity)
refers to when individuals are growing rapidly or slowly
peak velocity
age at which someone is growing the fastest
weight
very susceptible to extrinsic factors
- muscle due to exercise
- fat tissue with diet and exercise
- disease or illness
relative growth
- body parts, tissues, and organs all have differential rates of growth
physiological maturation
development process leading to state of full function
secondary sex characteristics
aspects of form or structure appropriate to males or females, often used to assess physiological maturity in teens
catch up growth
relatively rapid physical growth of the body to recover some, or all potential growth lost during a period of negative extrinsic influence
- recovery of some or all of growth depends on timing and duration of negative environmental condition
skeletal system
defines an indviduals structure
muscular system
allows mvt of body
adipose system
plays a vital role in energy, storage, insulation, and protection
endocrine system
exerts control over specific cellular functions through hormones
nervous system
controls mvt and speech
- site of thinking, analysis and memory
primary ossification centres
areas in the midportion of the shafts of the long bones
- fetal skeleton begins ossification from the centre outwards to form bone shafts
secondary ossification centres
areas near the end of bone shaft
- support bone growth in length
laying down new bone
- epiphyseal plate has many cellular layers
- cartilage cells form, grow, and align to leave new bone in place
- process of laying down new bone depends on blood supply
- once plates fuse, the length of the bone is fixed (most plates close by age 18 or 19)
appositional bone growth
involves the addition of new layers on previously formed layers
- periosteum is very thin outer covering of the bone
sarcomeres
contractile units of muscle cells
- muscle lengthening is result of addition and lengthening of sarcomeres
child hood muscular system
by year 1 the distribution of muscle fibre types is similar to adults
- boys add muscle mass until 17 - 54% bw
- girls add muscle mass until 13- 45% bw
heart tissue
- growth by hyperplasia and hypertrophy
- right ventricle is larger at birth
- left eventually catches up in growth
adipose system during prenatal period
- adipose tissue appears in fetus at 3.5 months
- increases rapidly during the last 2 prenatal months
adipose during childhood
- cell size does not significantly increase until puberty
- rapid increase in fat- 6 months post birth
- gradual increase in fat mass until 8
distribution of fat
- internal fat increases faster than subcutaneous until 6-7
- boys add more subcutaneous fat to their trunks, girls add more to trunk and limbs
endocrine during prenatal
- regulation of hormones occur through convoluted collab among maternal, fetal, and placental endocrine system
endocrine during childhood
- regulation of hormones involves interaction of hormones, genes, nutrients, and environmental factors
- excess of hormones may disturb normal process of growth/development
growth hormone (GH)
- under control of NS, it is secreted by anterior pituitary gland
- body needs this hormone for normal growth after birth
thyroid hormones
- triodothyronine (T3)
- tetraidothronine (T4)
- calcitonin
- pituitary gland secretes thyroid-stimulating hormone that regulates hormones secreted by the thyroid gland
- thyroid stimulating hormone is then increased by a releasing factor found in hypothalamus
gonadal hormones
- stimulating development of 2nd sex characteristics and sex organs
- androgens from sex organs and from adrenal cortex, fasten the fusion of growth plates
-testosterone helps growth spurt by increasing nitrogen retention and protein synthesis - estrogen promotes fat accumulation
insulin
vital to carb metabolism, stimulates the transpo of glucose and AA’s through membranes
- needed for full function of GH
- insulin deficiency can decrease protein synthesis
NS during prenatal period
- genetics direct development of structure/main circuits
- extrinsic factors fine tune the trillions of connections
cell body
carries out functions to keep the cell alive
dendrites
receive impulses from the other neurons
axon
transmits impulses to another neuron, gland, or organ/muscle
influences on neurons
- migration and branching of neurons can be affected by fetal nourishment
- nicotine, alcohol, malnutrition, etc.
- NS is highly susceptible of teratogenic exposure during prenatal period
NS during Childhood
- rapid early growth reflects an increase in neuron size, branching of synapses, and increase in glia and myelin
- first postnatal year is one of prolific synaptic formation
glia
cells of the NS that support and nourish the neurons
myelin
insulating sheath around the axons
environmental influences on the NS
- poor nutrition (stunts brain growth)
- injury (ex. left side of cerebral cortex damage leads to language deficits)
- early life experiences (raised with more stimulation, children grow more synapses/ connections
- learning (areas of the brain corresponding to fq used body parts expand as the synaptic connections and pathways that are stimulated are strengthened
brain structures
- SC/lower structures are more advanced at birth
- lower structures mediate many reflexes/reactions
- evidence of goal directed mvt occurs at 3-5 months
- frontal cortex is fully developed at 25
infantile reflexes
involuntary, stereotypical response to a specific stimuli
- controlled by subcortical areas
- estimated 27 major reflexes (supressed by 6 months of age)
random/spontaneous mvts
infants’ mvts that occur without any apparent stimulation
importance of reflexes
survival advantages (rooting reflex and sucking reflex)
- protection mechanism (moro reflex)
- general neurological status/maturity
primitive reflexes
associated with the infants instinct for survival and protection
- most are functional prenatally
- supressed by 3-4 months post natal
postural reactions
provide infant w ability to react to gravitational forces and changes in equilibrium
locomotor reflexes
ressemble later voluntary mvts (climbing, walking, swimming)
- supressed by 5-6 months
sucking reflex
- response is seen at 4 months
- elicited by touch of lips
- supressed by 6-9 months
rooting reflex
- activated by touch of cheek
- causes infant to turn its head towards the stimulus in search of food
- until 9 months post natal
moro reflex
- response to startle or begins to fall
- arms and legs outwards, and hands and fingers spread
- disappears by month 3
startle reflex
- appears at about 7 months
- flexion of arms and legs
- opposition of moro (extension)
palmar grasp
- fingers minus the thumb fold tightly around an object ]
- present by month 7 fetal
- weakens by 4 months old
- replaced by voluntary grasping or manual control
tonic neck
- asymmetric and symmetric
- appears 7 months fetal and disappears by month 5 of age
babkin reflex
- elicited by providing pressure to both palms, which causes the infant to exhibit: open mouth, eyes closed, and neck flexes
- present at birth until 3rd post natal month
babinski reflex
- stimulating sole of foot
- causes infant to fan out and extend toes
- suppressed by month 4
plantar grasp
- toes contact or flex as if trying to grasp an object
- persists through first year of life
postural reactions
- helps infant maintain posture in a changing environment
- appear at 2 months old
- disappear either late first or early second year
head and body righting
- foundation for future rolling mvts
- appear around 2nd month and are suppressed by 6 months
- when turning head, the infant will turn its body in same direction
labyrinthine righting
- helps infant maintain an upright position
- appears around 2 months
pull up (postural reaction)
- involuntary attempt to stay upright
- place infant in upright sitting position while holding its hands and carefully tipping it backward or forward
- 3rd month- related to voluntary upright posture
parachute (postural reaction)
- 4th month it is present
- serves as protective and support mvts
- sudden downward mvt, being tilted from a balanced sitting position
locomotor reflexes
appear earlier than voluntary behaviours
- crawling, stepping, swimming
crawling reflex
- observed from birth
- suppressed by month 4
- necessary for development of muscle tone needed for voluntary crawling
stepping reflex
- hold infant upright w feet touching a flat surface, which will cause them to reflexively start walking
- suppressed by 4th month
swimming
- hold baby horizontally over water, infant responds by moving arms and legs in rhythm like swimming pattern
- suppressed by 4th month
purpose of reflexes
- structural- reflect the structure of the NS
- functional- exist for survival purposes
- applied- suggest a role of reflexes in future mvts
spontaneous mvts
- repetitive motions that appear in the absence of any known stimuli
- transitional behaviours because they are performed when some level of control over body parts is involved but not goat oriented actions
supine kicking
- mvts are rhythmical and coordinated
- coordination of kicks resembles activity of an adult walking step
stereotypies
refer to rhythmic flapping of arms and legs because of underlying stereotypical temporal structure of the mvt
- ex alternate leg kicking, arm waving with an object
motor milestones
fundamental motor skills, the attainment of which is associated with the acqusition of later voluntary mvts
locomotion
act of moving, of the capacity to move, from place to place
crawling
moving on hands and stomach `
early walking characteristics
- each step independent from the next
- short steps with little leg or hip extension
- steps with flat feet
- no trunk rot.
- arms and hands carried in bent position
creeping
moving on hands and knees
proficient walking patterns
- increase stride length
- greater force and leg extension
- double knee lock pattern
- trunk rotation
early running
- wide base of support
- flat footed landing
- leg extension at mid support
- high arm guard
proficient running
- stride length increase
- rear leg fully extended on takeoff
- heel is tucked close to butt
- on foot strike thigh comes parallel to the ground
- everything kept in forward backward plane
component approach
follow each separate body part through wtv number of steps account for the qualitative changes observed over time
whole body approach
describes all characteristic positions of various body components in a step
ballistic skills
when a person applies force to an object to project in a certain direction
early kicking
- no step forward with non kicking leg
- kicking leg pushes forward at the ball
- knee is bent at contact
- no trunk rot.
- arms held stationary at sides
early overarm throwing
restricted to arm action alone
- no step into throw or use of trunk rot.
- throw is executed by elbow extension alone
early sidearm striking
- the child attempts to chop at the oncoming ball by extending elbow and using little leg/trunk action
early overarm striking
similar to pattern of overarm throwing and sidearm striking
proficient overarm striking
- pelvis and spine rotates more than 90 degrees
- elbow is held at an angle between 90-119 degrees at start of forward mvt
- lets the racket lag behind the arm during the forward swing
power grip
- infant squeezes object against palm without thumb opposition
precision grips
opposite of power grips
body sclaing`
adapting characteristics of the task or environment to the overall body size or relative to a body component
reaching
infants make a transition in the first year from random arm mvts to reaches that allow them to grasp objects
bimanual reaching
skill movers know how to use two hands when grasping objects that are too large for one and hand, and they can use both hands to complement eachother
controlling the arm
infants learn by doing
- they adjust the tension in the arms and apply muscle activity to get the hand close to the toy
- by repetition infants found more efficient and consistent reaching patterns
postural control
- infants sit independently by 6-7 months
- reaching improves when infants are able to maintain postural control
perception
multistage process that takes place in the brain and includes selecting, processing, and organizing info received from the senses
sensation
neural activity triggered by a stimulus that activates a sensory receptor and results in sensory nerve impulses traveling the sensory nerve pathways to the brain1
myopia
near sightedness
- light focus in front of retina
images far away are blurry
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early visual development
- low number of synaptic connections
- poor control of eye muscles
- short and fat eyeballs
- low number of photoreceptors
- poor ability to modify lens shape
astigmatism
many focal points of light
hyperopia
farsightedness
- light focus behind the retina
- images close up are blurry
visual acuity
refers to sharpness of light
presbyopia
the gradual loss of the ability to focus on near objects
preferential looking
technique in which two stimuli are presented to a subject who turns and looks for their preferred stimulus
glaucoma
group of conditions caused by build up aqueous liquid in the eye putting pressure on the optic nerve
visual disturbances
cataracts
glaucoma
age related maculopathy
cataracts
clouding of typically clear eye lens
maculopathy
disease affecting the central area of the retina that provides detailed vision
depth perception
persons judgement of distance from self to an object or place in space
retinal disparity
difference in the images received by the two eyes as result of their different locations
motion parallax
change in optical location for objects at different distances during viewer motion
optic flow
change in pattern of optical texture, transformation of the optic array
figure and ground perception
ability to see an object of interest as distinct from the background
whole and part perception
ability to discriminate parts of a picture or an object from the whole, perceiving them simultaneously
perception of distance
we must perceive an object has constant size even though it may vary in distance from us
shape constancy
is the perception of an actual object shape despite its orientation to a viewer
habituation
STATE OF HAVING ADAPTED TO A STIMULUS
developmentalist view
saw perception as a precursor to both mvt and cognition
- proposed children with learning disabilities had deficits in perceptual development
perceptual motor programs
designed for young children for groups with a characteristic deficiency
ecological view
- holds that newborn infants perceives the environment and many of its properties before the onset of purposeful mvts
affordances
actions or behaviours provided for or permitted to an individual by places, objects, and events in an environment
socialization
process by which individuals acquire the beliefs and behaviours of the society and subgroup in which they live in
culture
subset of society, and is the collection of specific attitudes and behaviours that characterize an identifiable group of people
brofenbrenner’s ecological systems
microsystem- immediate interactions of the child
mesosystem- interactions between components of the microsystem
exosystem- external settings that indirectly affect the child
macrosystem- broader cultural and societal influences
patrens categories of play
solitary- 3 months to 2 years
onlooker- 2- 3 years
parallel- 3-3.5
associative- 3.5 5
cooperative- 5+ years
developmental coordination disorder
affects 1 in 20 children
problems with motor coordination that make everyday tasks difficult and frusturatingq
DSM
Handbook providing healthcare professionals with descriptions, symptoms, and other criteria for diagnosing mental disorders
diagnosing dcd
motor functioning is well below that expected for the childs age
- problems in functioning had limitations to activities of daily living, and negatively affected school performance
causes of dcd
- ## possibly in utero or soon after birth
areas associated with dcd
- poor postural control and problems with both static and dynamic balance
- poor sensorimotor coordination
- problems with motor learning
cerebellum
- vital role in motor coordination and postural control
- automatization processes: allows one to focus on a task while the other mvts necessary for coordinated action occur with little or no conscious attention
parietal lobe
- problems with visuospatial reasoning and deficits in motor planning that involve motor imagery
perinatal risks
- low birth weight
- preterm birth
- damage to developing brain
- low levels of oxygen in body tissues
dimensions of participation
types of activities
intensity of participation
places of participation
people who are participating with
formal activities
structured, have rules and organization, involve leaders and often require preplanning
informal activities
reading, talking on the phone, more spontaneous and occur with less planning and far less rules
Perceived efficacy and goal setting system (PEGS)
enables young children to self report their perceived competence in everyday activities
preference for activities of children (PAC)
measures preference to participate in activities regardless of actual participation in the given activity
