ap_psychology_unit_0_2025_03_12_104003 Flashcards
what is psychology?
study of behaviour and mental processes
-how they are affected by an organisms physical state, mental state, and external environment
what is pseudo-psychology?
the phony or unscientific psychology
psychology vs. psychiatry
psychiatry: specialty in medical field, can prescribe medication for mental and behavioural problems
psychology: broader field with many specialities
hindsight bias?
tendency to believe after learning the outcome, “i knew all along”
overconfidence
the tendency to think we know more than we do
quick and confident thinking over correct answers
gambler’s fallacy
occurs when gamblers believe after losses a win is due soonall events are random and independent
waves of thought
introspection, gestalt psychology, psychoanalysis, behaviourism
theory
explains behaviours/events by offering ideas that organize observations
whats one thing you have to look out for when testing a theory?
falsifiability…..can it be proven wrong?
what is an experiment
research method that manipulates one or more factors to observe behaviourrandom assignment of participants
experimental method?
this is the only way to prove causal relationships cause = effect
experiments need two groups
experimental group: exposed to the independent variable
control group: not exposed to the independent variable
what are confounding variables?
variables that affect the results, harder to prove that the iv caused the results
ethnocentrism?
experimenter assumes behaviours that are typical in their cultures
all components of an experiment?
hypothesis, iv, dv, experimental/control groups, random sample/assignment, and placebo*
what is a case study
an in-depth study of an individual or group for long periods of time to collect data
done to hopefully reveal universal principles
naturalistic observation? strengths/weaknesses
non-experimental technique to observe behaviour without manipulating anything: real data, no hawthorne effect, cant react to researcher
survey method, strengths/weaknesses
a non-experimental technique
s: gathers large amounts of data fast/easily
w: does not provide causation
case study strengths/weaknesses
s: chronological data, full picture, different views
w: time consuming, does not provide causation, cannot always be generalized, expensive
directionality problem
cannot tell us which variable is the cause, which one is the effect
correlational coefficient
strength of the relationship, ranging from -1 to +1
types of correlation…
positive correlation (two up arrows), negative correlation (one up one down)
scatterplots?
a graph that reveals the correlation between two variables
if the correlational coefficient is 0 what does that mean?
no correlation between the variables
illusory correlation
when we perceive that a relationship exists between two variables exist, when its weaker or doesn’t exist
ex post facto research? strengths/weaknesses
research where we choose subjects based on a pre-existing condition..
s: interesting cases
w: no causation/generalization
cross sectional vs longitudinal studies
both are not research methods!!!
cs: compares different groups
l: one group, data over long period, used in developmental psychology, time consuming
cohort sequential study
mix of cross sectional and longitudinal
group of people the same age at different starting points
descriptive vs inferential statistics
descriptive: numerical data to organize/measure/describe group characteristics, charts or graphs, e.g, mean median mode/central tendency
inferential: predictions of data collected, how the iv/variable a applies to the general population
what is the frequency distribution table for?
needed to organize data and determine how often data occurs
histogram
bar graph that depicts frequency distribution
mean median mode central tendency
mean: average of the data
median: measure represented by middle score
mode: most frequently occurring score
central tendency: aims to provide a single value to represent data
what is an outlier?
extreme scores that can influence the mean median mode
what is standard deviation?
the average distance from the mean —> low means the scores are close to the mean, high means the scores are spread over large range of values
normal distribution/bell curve?
a symmetrical distribution produced when large group of people’s variables are tested
mean median mode are at the 0-point value
what is skewed distribution?
skewed distribution is a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value
positive/negative skew?
positive: occurs when scores pull mean toward the higher end of score (lower scores than high)
negative: occurs when scores pull mean toward the lower end of score (higher scores than low)
statistical significance means?
the results are valid, they are not happening by chance
iv manipulation resulted in accurate data
in correlational studies this means a correlational coefficient of .05 or greater to have statistical significance
what is the irb for?
the institutional review board are responsible for ethical guidelines, evaluation of risks/benefits, and applies only to human research*but the irb applies to both humans and animals
animal research requires?
clear purpose
treated in a humane way
acquire, care for and dispose of animals legally
least amount of suffering as possible
human research requires?
no coercion it has to be voluntary, they can withdraw
informed consent: the participant(s) must know the nature of the study
anonymity: participants are set anonymous unless consented to naming
deception/debrief: must fully explain the nature of the study and provide additional services if needed
what is the hawthorne effect?
sometimes the control group may experience changes
just knowing you are in an experiment can cause change
what is experimenter bias?
a type of confounding variable
experimenters can unknowingly apply their self fulfilling prophecy
not a conscious act
random sample vs random assignment?
a random sample is each person in the larger population has a chance of being selected to participaterandom assignment is each person in the study has an equal chance (50/50) of being put into the control/experimental group
list all the perspectives in psychology (10)
biological, socio-cultural, developmental, cognitive, evolutionary, behavioural, humanistic, psychodynamic, trait theory, behavioural-genetic
explain the biological/biopsychological perspective
your feelings/behaviours are from the brain (organic root), body/brain chemistry, and neurotransmitters
explain the developmental perspective
focuses on the psychological growth of individuals
how we change in responses and behaviour as we age
explain the cognitive perspective
focuses on how we think
explain the humanistic perspective
focuses on the uniqueness of each individualpersonal growth, self actualization, human potential
explain the socio-cultural perspective
focuses on the social and cultural environments and influence our behaviours, thoughts, and emotions
explain the behavioural perspective vs behavioural genetic perspective
b: focuses on how environment and learned experiences shape behaviourb-g: focuses on how genetic composition influences behaviour, how the environment + genetics interact to affect behaviour
explain the evolutionary perspective
focuses on the way we behave due to inherited characteristics and how these behaviours helped ensure survival for our ancestors
e.g, darwinism
explain the psychodynamic perspective
focuses on the unconscious mental forces within an individual, like the influence of early childhood experiences that drive their emotions/behavioursexplores underlying desires and anxieties that are largely unaware to the person but still impact their personality and actions
internal conflicts shape behaviour
