AP1 Exam 1 Flashcards
Define Anatomy
Study of body structures and their relationships
Define Physiology
Study of body functions
What is embryology?
First 8 weeks of development after fertilization of a human egg
Levels of organization
Chemical
Cellular
Tissue
Organ
Organ System
Organism
Characteristics of Living Things
Differentiation
Growth
Metabolism
Movement
Reproduction
Responsiveness
Metabolism is the ____ of all the _____ processes that occur in the body.
sum
chemical
What are the two primary control systems the body uses to maintain homeostasis?
Nervous system
Endocrine system
Disorder
Any abnormality of structure or function
Disease
A more specific term for an illness characterized by a recognizable set of signs and symptoms
Mucous membrane aka mucosa lines a body cavities that open to the
outside
Serous membranes
line cavities that do NOT open directly to the outside.
Pleurisy and peritonitis are usually accompanied by _________
insufficient production of lubricating fluid.
Retroperitoneal organs and structures
kidneys
adrenal glands
pancreas
duodenum of the small intestine
ascending and descending colons of the large intestine
portions of the abdominal aorta and inferior vena cava
The duodenum is in which quadrant?
RUQ
The pylorus of the stomach is in which quadrant?
RUQ
Regarding quadrants, the head of the pancreas is in the ____ and the body and tail is in the _____?
head is in the RUQ
body and tail in the LUQ
T/F
The small intestine lies in all four quadrants?
True
In which quadrants do the kidneys lie?
RUQ and LUQ
-lemma means
Sheath (e.g. plasmalemma)
The lipid bi-layer consists of which three components?
Phospholipids
Glycolipids
Cholesterol
Define amphipathic
Contain both polar and non-polar parts
Glycoproteins
membrane proteins with a carb. group
Glycolipids
membrane lipids with a carb. group
Purpose of cholesterol in the lipid bilayer?
Mediates membrane fluidity
Membrane proteins are classified as either ____ or ____ proteins
integral
peripheral
What is the glycocalyx? What is is made of?
The “sugary coating” surrounding the cell membrane
The carb. portions of glycolipids and glycoproteins
*Only located on the outer portion of the cell membrane
What are the functions of the glycocalyx?
Acts as a cellular “signature” for identification
Cell adhesion
Can attract a film to make the cell “slippery” (RBCs)
Protections from enzymatic activity in the ECF
A continuous change in a cells glycocalyx; think _____
Cancer
a continuous change in “identity” may help the cell avoid the immune system
Fat soluble vitamins
ADEK
What factors affect diffusion?
amount of substance
steepness of concentration gradient
temperature
surface area
diffusion distance
What is osmosis?
Diffusion of solvent (water) across/through a semipermeable membrane
During secondary active transport, symporters carry two substances across the cell membrane in the ______ direction; antiporters carry two substances in the _____direction.
same
opposite
Vesicular transport is considered a form of _____ transport because _____ is required.
active
energy
Most body cells carry out bulk-phase endocytosis, also called ______, a form of endocytosis in which tiny droplets of extracellular fluid are takenup.
pinocytosis (pi-no–sī-TO - -sis; pino- = to drink) or “cell drinking,”
Pino-
to drink; pinocytosis
Explain transcytosis (3 “steps”)
endocytosis on one side
moves through the cell
exocytosis on the opposite side
The cytoskeleton is comprised of what 3 things?
Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
Microtubules
Chromatin represents the ______, ______ ______ of the interphase nucleus.
relaxed, uncoiled chromosomes
The nuclear membrane is ______ membraned
double
Where are both ribosomal subunits produced?
in the nucleolus
Ribosomes are stored where?
In the cytosol as free ribosomes
fixed ribosomes (RER or nuclear membrane)
in the mitochondria
Ribosomes reside, ______, in the cytoplasm until needed.
disassembled
Ribosomes are comprised of a ______ unit and a ______ unit (2 units overall)
large unit- joins the AAs to form polypeptide chains
small unit- initiates translation, recruits the large unit, and reads the mRNA
The RER is more ______ whereas the SER is more a network of ______.
linear
tubules
Golgi complex
a stack of 3-20 flattened, membrane enclosed sacs called “cisternae”
Mitochondria
cells powerplant
self replicating
have their own DNA
have their own ribosomes
used to establish hereditary from the mother only
Lysosome
vesicles that form from golgi body and contain powerful digestive enzymes
carry out autophagy (digestion of worn out organelles)
carry out autolysis (digestion of the entire cell)
Peroxisomes
Detoxify several toxic substances such as alcohol
also break down H2O2 (byproduct of oxidation)
self replicating (by enlarging and dividing) but dont contain their own DNA
Peroxisomes
Detoxify several toxic substances such as alcohol (abundant in the liver)
also break down H2O2 (byproduct of oxidation)
self replicating (by enlarging and dividing) but dont contain their own DNA
Proteasomes
continuously destroy unneeded, damaged, faulty proteins
Found in the cytosol and nucleus
*parkinsons, alzheimers; may arise from dysfunctional proteasomes>>collection of faulty proteins
Centrosome
located near the nucleus in paired, perpendicular cylinders
assembly of microtubules (aka microtubule organizing center)
Cilia move ______ along a cell surface.
fluid
Flagella move an entire cell; only found on the ______ cell in humans.
sperm
Inclusions
non living components within cells
not membrane bound
examples include: glycogen, lipids, pigments, crystals
Epidemiology
the science that deals with the why when where a disease occurs and how they are transmitted in a human community
Metaplasia
the transformation of one cell type into another
Progeny
offspring or descendants
Proteomics
the study of proteome (all of an organisms proteins)
Chromosome
SINGLE double stranded DNA molecule
carrier of genetic info
Autosome
an ordinary chromosome
one that does not determine sex
Locus
the position of a gene on its chromosome
Telomere
DNA sequences at the tips of chromosomes
protect the tips from erosion
prevent chromosomes from sticking to each other
*telomeres of most body cells shorten with each cycle of cell division
Gametic number
the number of chromosomes in gametes
denoted by the letter “n”
Somatic number
the number of chromosomes in ordinary body cells
denoted by 2n (twice the gametic number)
The cell cycle consists of which two phases
interphase
mitotic phase
Interphase
three phases: G1, S, and G2 phases
In the cell cycle, DNA replication occurs during which phase of interphase?
S phase
Replications of DNA and centrosomes occurs during ______ phase.
S phase of interphase
Mitotic phase consists of which stages
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Prophase
chromatin fibers change into chromosomes
nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear
centrosomes migrate to poles
Metaphase
Centromeres of chromatid pairs line up at metaphase plate
Anaphase
chromatid pairs split at the centromere and move to opposite poles of the cell
chromatids are now called chromosomes
Telophase
nucleolus and nuclear membrane reappear
chromosomes now in their chromatin form
mitotic spindle disappears
Cytokinesis
division of the cells cytoplasm
usually begins in late anaphase
the plasma membrane constricts at its middle forming a cleavage furrow
Interphase begins when ______ is complete
cytokinesis
Crossing over occurs when
Prophase 1
Meiosis 1 is a ______ ______
reductive division
similar to mitosis except chromosomes form tetrads when lining at metaphase plate
Allele
alternative forms of a gene
code for the same trait (e.g. eye color)
located on the same location on the homologous chromosome
Genotype vs. Phenotype
the genetic makeup
vs.
the genetic expression
Regarding ABO typing, the naturally occurring antibody production is stimulated by ______?
Environmental factors
*this is not the case for the Rh or D antibody
Forward typing (blood)
mixing A, B, D antibodies to look for agglutination
*what we do
Achondroplasia
a bone grown disorder responsible for dwarfism
*disproportional body parts
*other proportional shortness is likely associated with a hormonal or nutritional disorder
Aneuploidy
when an individual is born with added or missing chromosomes
Trisomy
an additional chromosome
*trisomy 21- downs syndrome
Erythroblastosis fetalis
Hemolytic death of the newborn
Which is the only class of antibody to cross the placental barrier?
IgG
Spermatogenesis produces sperm containing either an ______ or a ______
X chromosome
Y chromosome
Oocytes only produce ______.
X chromosomes
Sex linkage is synonymous with ______ linkage because why?
X linkage
there are not many genes on the Y chromosome
Characteristic feature of X linked inheritance is what?
absence of father to son inheritance
*all daughters of an affected male are obligate carriers
Nondisjunction
the failure of chromosome pairs to separate properly during mitosis
Karyotype; 47, XX, 21
female with trisomy 21
______ during pregnancy increases the risk for downs syndrome.
Increased age
*amongst other genetic abnormalities
What is the most common human sex chromosome disorder?
Klinefelters syndrom
Karyotype; 47, XXY
What are the 5 types of cell junctions?
Tight
Adherens
Desmosomes
Hemidesmosomes
Gap
Tight Junction
consist of weblike strands of transmembrane proteins
fuse together outer surfaces of adjacent cells
seal off passageways
location: places where you don’t want things to leak out (e.g. bladder)
Name this junction
Tight Junction
Adherens junction
contain plaque: dense layer of proteins on the inside of the cell membrane that attaches to both membrane proteins and microfilaments
cadherins: transmembrane proteins that join cells; inserts into the plaque from the opposite side of the plasma membrane and reaches across the intercellular space to attach to other cadherins
help resist separation during contractile activities such when food moves through intestines
Name this junction
Adherens Junction
Gap Junction
membrane proteins called connexins form tiny fluid filled tunnels called connexons
connect to neighboring cells and allow passage of certain things from one cell to another
cells connected by gap junctions are not fused together tightly but have a very slight intercellular gap
heart cells, avascular tissue such as lens and cornea
Name this junction
Gap Junction
What does desmo- mean?
band (desmosome)
Hemidesmosomes
Half a desmosome however:
integrins rather than cadherins
DONT attach cells to cells
attach cells to basement membranes
Name this junction
Hemidesmosome
Desmosomes
Similar to adherens junctions except:
cadherins attach to intermediate filaments of cytoskeleton
these intermediate filaments extend across the cell to desmosomes on the other side
prevent cells from separating under tension such as cardiac muscle contraction
Name this junction
Desmosome
What are the 4 basic types of tissue?
epithelial
connective
nervous
muscle
Basement membrane
found between epithelial and connective tissue
consists of basal lamina (epithelial side) and reticular lamina (connective side)
Functions of epithelial tissue
Absorption
Excretion
Filtration
Protection
Secretion
Epithelial shape similar to “paving stone”
Squamous
How is epithelial tissue named if different shape are present in the layers?
by the apical layer (outer most layer)
Simple cuboidal epithelium is often found where?
lining the tubules of the kidneys
glands
*single layer
Goblet cells secret ______ and are what shape and arrangement?
mucous
simple columnar cells
Pseudostratified cells
all attach to the basement membrane but not all the cells extend to the apical surface
Keratinized vs. Nonkeratinized
Keratinized stratified squamous cells do NOT contain nuclei
Stratified cuboidal epithelium is located where?
ducts of sweat glands
esophageal glands
Transitional epithelium
change shape depending on the tissues state of stretch
the apical “dome cells” (appear rounded) are an identifiable feature when relaxed
Where is mesothelium found?
serous membranes (pericardium, pleura, peritoneum)
Endothelium is specialized simple squamous epithelium that lines _______.
the entire circulatory system
Exocrine glands typically have _____.
Ducts
Endocrine glands secrete into the ______ space. The secretions then ______ to the blood stream.
extracellular
diffuse
Endocrine glands do not contain ______.
Ducts
What are the three types of exocrine glands?
Apocrine
Holocrine
Merocrine
Merocrine secretion
most common type
gland releases its secretion by exocytosis
*salivation
Apocrine secretion
glands bud their sections off of the plasma membrane
*breast milk production
Holocrine secretion
the entire cell lyses, releasing its secretions
*sebum
Connective tissue
few cells
extracellular matrix
What is the extracellular matrix of connective tissue made of?
ground substance (think jello in a jello mold)
protein fibers
usually produced by blast cells
Connective tissue cells arise from ______.
mesenchymal cells (embryonic connective tissue aka stem cells)
Regarding connective tissue, mature cells have a reduced or absent capacity for ______ and ______.
cell division
matrix production
Connective tissue picture for familiarity
What is the most common cell in the connective tissue?
Fibroblasts
migrate throughout the connective tissue and secrete fibers and ground substance
How do macrophages move?
they use filopodia: short branch projections that contain actin
Kupffer cells
Liver
Langerhans cells
skin and lymph nodes
Osteoclasts are considered ______ and are located where.
macrophages
in the bone
Dust cell
lungs
aka alveolar machrophage
Monocytes
“blood macrophages”
*become macrophages when they migrate into surrounding tissues; also enlarge
Microglia
CNS
Macrophages migrate to areas of need, responding to ______.
leukocytes
Plasma cells
found mostly in connective tissue especially the GI and Resp. tracts
develop from B lymphocytes
secret antibodies
accumulate in infected tissue
3 types of loose connective tissue
areolar
adipose
reticular
Loose connective tissue characterized by ______
loosely woven collagen fibers
Areolar CT
forms the subcutaneous layer attaching the skin to underlying tissues
Adipose CT
well vascularized
usually collocated with areolar
adipocytes (signant ring shaped) produced from fibroblasts
*other common sense functions
Reticular CT
form stroma of liver, spleen, liver
fine interlacing reticular fibers
filtering
Dense connective tissue
dense regular AND dense irregular AND elastic
fibers are thicker and more densely packed
Dense regular CT
fibers regularly arranged in parallel patterns
tensile strength along an axis
tendons, aponeuroses, ligaments
Dense irregular CT
fibers are abundant but not arranged in symmetrical or parallel fashion
pulling forces exerted in various directions: heart valves, nerve sheaths, periosteum, dermis
Mucous membranes
open to exterior
goblet cells
cells connected by tight junctions
underlying lamina propria (areolar)
Serous membranes consist of areolar CT covered by ______.
mesothelium (simple squamous)
Synovial membranes
similar to serous membranes BUT they do not have an epithelial layer
line the cavities of freely moveable joints
Synovial membranes are composed of:
synoviocytes (secrete synovial fluid)
underlying layer of areolar and adipose CT
*NO epithelial layer
Marfan syndrome
connective tissue disorder
autosomal dominant trait
fibrillin gene is defective, results in abnormally developed elastic fibers]
affects periosteum, suspensory ligaments and walls of large arteries
affected individuals tend to be tall and have disproportionately long arms, legs, fingers, and toes
Define xeno-
strange
Xenotransplantation
replacement of diseased or injured tissue or organ with cells or tissues from an animal
The most prevalent disorders of connective tissues are ______.
autoimmune diseases
*connective tissues are located everywhere
*disorders of epithelial tissue are mainly specific to individual organs
Adventitia
loose connective tissue located around blood vessels
Mucous connective tissue
type of embryonic connective tissue
aka Wharton’s jelly of the umbilical cord
high turgor: resists compression
Two types of embryonic connective tissue
mesenchyme
mucous connective tissue
Mesenchyme forms ______.
almost all other types of connective tissue
pluripotent stem cells
Reticular fibers
fine bundles of collagen coated with glycoprotein
much thinner than collagen and form a branching network
T/F
Columnar epithelium is common in the digestive tract?
True
Elastic fibers
made of elastin and fibrillin
located in areas where elasticity is needed
Collagen fibers
most abundant protein in the body
inelastic but flexible and incredibly strong
Three types of connective tissue fibers
collagen
elastic
reticular
Mast cells can be ______.
phagocytic
Mast cell primary mediators
stored in granules for immediate use
examples include histamine, heparin, chemotactic factors
Mast cell secondary mediators
can be synthesized on the spot and used immediately
examples include cytokines, thromboxanes, prostaglandins
Classification of connective tissue (CT)
Picture of a cell
Dorsal body cavity broken down into:
Cranial cavity
Vertebral canal
Thoracic cavity broken down into:
Pleural cavity
Mediastinum
Pericardial cavity
Site of protein synthesis in a cell:
Ribosomes
Small unit and large unit
Carcinoma
Malignant tumors that arise from epithelial cells
Elastic tissue has a ______ color due to the high number of elastic fibers.
Yellowish
