AP REVIEW Flashcards
Declaration of Independence
- Natural Rights
- Social Contract
- Popular Sovereignty
- Limited Government
- Republicanism
Natural Rights
Fundamental rights of all humans; NOT received from a government
Social Contract
People create a government to protect the rights of people
Popular Sovereignty
People are the source of governmental power and authority.
Limited Government
Governmental power is restricted by the Constitution
Republicanism
A representative form of government; people choose representatives to make policy
Participatory Democracy
Emphasizes broad participation and an active role for individual citizens in politics and civil society
Pluralist Democracy
Group-based activism striving to impact political decision-making
Elite Democracy
Emphasizes limited, or filtered, citizen participation in political and civil society.
Federalist 10
Written by James Madison. A large republic is the best way to control the negative effects of factions. Fearful of factions and majority groups.
Brutus 1
Antifederalist paper. Warned against excessive federal power and preferred state and local policymaking. Didn’t want a strong central government.
Articles of Confederation
Based on the principle of state sovereignty. Congress could declare war, make treaties, borrow money, and create currency. Because there was only a legislative branch, the government had no enforcement powers and could not tax or regulate interstate commerce.
Shay’s Rebellion
Weak federal response shifted public opinion towards favoring a stronger central government and a new Constitution.
Great Compromise
Created a bicameral legislature; House based on population, Senate 2 per state revenue bills originate in House.
Electoral College
Selects the president. Some wanted a direct election, others wanted Congress to choose the president.
3/5 Compromise
Slaves would count as 3/5 of a person for congressional representation purposes (overrepresentation for Southern states)
Importation of Slaves
Slave trade couldn’t be banned for 20 years
Amendment Process
2/3 of both houses of Congress to propose, 3/4 of states to ratify
Federalists
Supported the new Constitution, favored stronger central government
Antifederalists
Opposed the Constitution, favored states’ rights, and demanded a Bill of Rights.
Separation of Powers
Each branch is assigned specific powers, so each branch has limited power. The legislative branch makes laws, the executive enforces laws, and the judicial interprets laws.
Checks and Balances
Each branch has the ability to limit/block/influence the actions of other branches
Federalist 51
James Madison advocated for the separation of powers and checks and balances
Federalism`
Division of power between national, state, and local governments
Dynamic Federalism
The relationship between the federal and the state has changed over time. (The national government has gained power while the states have lost power.)
Delegated Powers
Powers given to the federal government by the Constitution (coin money, declare war, regulate interstate commerce)
Reserved Powers
Powers reserved to the states
10th Amendment
All powers not delegated to the federal government or denied to the states are reserved to the states or the people.
Concurrent Powers
Powers reserved by both federal and state governments.
Dual Federalism
States and federal each supreme in their own sphere of power, no overlap
Cooperative Federalism
Federal and states share responsibilities, costs, and administration of policies
Categorical Grants
Federal money to states for a specific purpose may have conditions of aid/incentives
Block Grants
Federal money to states for use within a broad area, more freedom to states
Federal Revenue Sharing
Federal money to states with little or no strings attached (ended in 1986)
Mandates
Rules that states must follow, whether the federal government provides money or not
The Importance of Grants
Grants have increased national power by allowing Congress to influence state policies
Supremacy Clause
Federal laws are superior to state laws when they come into conflict
Necessary and Proper Clause
Expands federal power, Congress can make laws necessary and proper for executing their enumerated powers
Enumerated Powers
Powers directly written in the constitution (explicit or expressed)
Implied Powers
Congress has powers not directly written, based on necessary and proper clause
McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)
Congress could create a national bank even though the Constitution doesn’t explicitly allow it to do so (necessary and proper clause). States couldn’t tax the national government because the supremacy clause says the national government is superior (supremacy clause).
Commerce Clause
Congress can regulate interstate commerce; and expand congressional power. Modern interpretation: ONLY Congress can regulate anything affecting interstate commerce.
US v. Lopez (1995)
Struck down the federal Gun-Free School Zones Act (commerce clause & 10th amendment). The court struck down a federal law, establishing that there is a limit to Congress’ power under the Commerce Clause and they reaffirmed that the 10th Amendment does reserve some powers to the states.
House of Representatives
435 members, represent districts (population), serve 2-year terms.
More formal/rules-based, Germaness requirement (all speeches must be time-regulated and relevant to the topic at hand), and time limit for debate.
Senate
100 members, represent states (2 per state), serve 6-year terms
No germaneness requirement, and no speech time limit
Congress’ Enumerated Powers
- Budget (Power of the Purse)
- Taxation
- Coin, Borrow Money
- Declare War
- Maintaining Armed Forces
Congress’ Implied Powers
Allows Congress to make legislation on economic environmental and social issues. Based on the necessary and proper clause, Congress can make legislation to carry out its enumerated powers.
Party Leadership
Speaker of the House (from the majority party)
Senate Majority Leader (leader of the Senate)
President of the Senate (Vice President - only role is to cast tie-breaking votes)
Standing Committees
- Permanent
- Bills are sent here first
- Hold Hearings
- Edit/Revise/Markup Bills
- Oversight on Implementation
(Committee chairs are always from the majority party)
Conference Committees
A joint committee that makes a compromise version of a bill between House and Senate versions
House Rules Committee
Makes rules for floor debate: open/close rule, time limit for debate, etc.
Discharge Petitions
A majority vote of the full House to force a bill out of committee
Committee of the Whole
Used to expedite the passage of legislation members may debate and propose amendments
Filibuster
A long speech intended to delay action and prevent a vote
Cloture
Vote to cut off debate on a bill, requires a 3/5 majority
Silent Filibuster
The contested bill is put aside so that the Senate can work on other business
Hold
A senator can prevent action on a bill without their approval
Unanimous Consent Agreements
Set the terms for floor debate, which may include time limits, rules on amendments
Power of the Purse
Congress creates a budget, the president signs it into law
Discretionary Spending
Must be approved annually as part of budget bills
Mandatory Spending
Spending required by law that can only be changed by new legislation, including entitlements and interest on the debt
Entitlement Programs
Provides benefits to people who are entitled to them by law (Social Security & Medicare).
Pork Barrel Legislation
Provides tangible benefits like jobs or money to a district that help the representative get re-elected.
Logrolling
Vote Trading (“I vote for yours, you vote for mine”)
Delegate
Votes how constituents want, even if they disagree
Trustee
Representative votes her conscience regardless of what constituents want
Politico
Sometimes act as a trustee, sometimes as a delegate
Reapportionment
Alters the number of seats each state has in the House; every 10 years after the census
Redistricting
Redrawing congressional districts, done by state legislatures
Baker v. Carr (1962)
Redistricting issues are justiciable, led to the “one person, one vote” principle. Requires districts to be roughly the same size. (14th Amendment - Equal Protection Clause)
Gerrymandering
Drawing congressional districts in bizarre shapes to purposely favor a party
Shaw v. Reno (1993)
Congressional districts cannot be drawn based only on race.
Divided Government
Different parties control the White House, Senate, and/or House of Representatives
Policy Gridlock
Slow/difficult to pass legislation/confirm nominations (resulting from a divided government)
Party Polarization
Increasing ideological division between Democrats and Republicans.
Veto
A message to Congress rejecting legislation; Congress can override with a 2/3 vote in both houses
Pocket Veto
President takes no action and the session of Congress ends within 10 days of receiving the bill.
Constitutional Tension
President is Commander-in-Chief, and Congress has the power to declare war
Treaties
President makes treaties with foreign nations subject to Senate ratification
Executive Agreements
Agreements with foreign heads of state, like a treaty but don’t require Senate ratification
Bargaining
The executive likely needs to bargain with Congress on appointments, budgets, and legislative priorities
Persuasion
Presidents lack extensive constitutional powers, so they need support for agenda from the public and Congress
Signing Statements
A written statement issued by the president when signing a bl that provides his/her interpretation of the bill
Executive Orders
Have the power of law, don’t require congressional approval, generally used to direct the bureaucracy and foreign policy
Nomination with Senate Confirmation
Federal judges, cabinet secretaries, ambassadors, heads of executive agencies
Nominations with No Senate Confirmation Required
White House office/staff: Chief of Staff, press secretary, advisors, etc.
Judicial Appointments
A president’s longest-lasting influence
Federalist 70
Alexander Hamilton argues in favor of a unitary executive stating that the executive needed to respond in times of war, tragedy, etc.
22nd Amendment
Limited presidents to a two-term limit
Social Media & Technology
Makes it easy for presidents to communicate quickly and directly with the public.
Bully Pulpit
A position of authority that allows the president to speak out on any issue
State of the Union Address
Nationally televised speech delivered to Congress attempts to gain support for the executive’s agenda and pressure Congress
Bureaucracy/Civil Service
Implements federal policies
Merit System
Bureaucrats earn jobs based on merit and/or civil service exams. Heads of bureaucratic agencies tend to be politically affiliated.
Cabinet Departments
Major area of responsibility over a broad policy area.
Independent Regulatory Commissions/Agencies
Make rules regulating specific industries; more narrow area of responsibility
Independent Executive Agencies
Perform public services, and report directly to the president (EPA)
Government Corporations
Provide services that could be provided by private companies, but aren’t profitable (Postal Service)
Administrative Discretion
Congress allows agencies to choose how to implement and enforce legislation
Administrative Law
Agencies are given rule-making authority to make regulations that have the power of law
Congressional Oversight
Committee hearings and investigations into an agency’s activities
Federalist 78
Alexander Hamilton argued for an independent judiciary, life tenure, and the power of judicial review
Marbury v. Madison (1803)
Established judicial review
Judicial Review
The Supreme Court can rule on the constitutionality of federal laws, executive orders and actions, and state laws. *The legitimacy of the Court is sometimes called into question. The Court cannot enforce its rulings. Presidents nominate and appoint justices.
Precedent
A past decision that influences future decisions
Stare Decisis
“Let the decision stand” meaning to follow precedent
Presidential Checks on Judiciary
- Ignore/Refuse to Implement Rulings
- Nominate Justices to Overturn
Congress Checks on Judiciary
- Change the court’s jurisdiction
- Change the number of judges
- Propose a Constitutional amendment
- Pass a modified version of the law
Judicial Restraint
Courts should defer to the democratically elected branches whenever possible
Judicial Activism
The Court can and should be free to overrule other branches
Civil Liberties
Individual personal freedoms
Bill of Rights
Protects individual personal liberty by limiting the federal government.
1st Amendment
Religion, Speech, Press, Assembly
2nd Amendment
Right to Bear Arms
3rd Amendment
No quartering of troops in peacetime
4th Amendment
No unreasonable searches and seizures
5th Amendment
Due process, no double jeopardy
6th Amendment
Speedy public trial by jury (criminal)
7th Amendment
Speedy public trial by jury (civil)
8th Amendment
No cruel and unusual punishment/excessive bail
9th Amendment
Unenumerated rights of the people
Due Process Clause - 14th Amendment
“…nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law.”
Selective Incorporation
The Bill of Rights has been applied to states on a case-by-case basis.
Establishment Clause - 1st Amendment
No official religion or preferential treatment for a religion
Engel v. Vitale (1962)
Banned state-sponsored public school prayer, even if participation is voluntary
Free Exercise Clause - 1st Amendment
The right to practice the religion of your choice
Wisconsin v. Yoder (1973)
Compelling Amish students to attend public school beyond 8th grade violates the free exercise clause
Schenck v. US (1919)
There can be time, place, and manner restrictions on free speech. Speech that inhibits war efforts or presents clear and present danger can be banned.
Tinker v. Des Moines (1969)
Students have free speech; symbolic speech is pure speech
Unprotected Speech
Libel, slander, obscenity, speech intended to and likely to incite imminent illegal action
New York Times v. US (1971)
Because of the First Amendment/s freedom of the press, there is a heavy presumption against prior restraint (Prevented the Nixon administration from blocking the publication of classified documents)
McDonald v. Chicago (2010)
Incorporated an individual right to bear arms
Reasonable Search
- Warrant
- Probable Cause
- or Consent
Exclusionary Rule
Illegally obtained evidence may not be used in a trial
Miranda Rule
Suspects in custody must be informed of their 5th and 6th Amendment rights
Public Safety Exception
If a question is asked to neutralize a dangerous situation, a statement made by a suspect can be used as evidence
Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)
Incorporated the right to an attorney. States are forced to provide an attorney to individuals even if they cannot afford one.
Right of Privacy
Isn’t enumerated in the Bill of Rights (Griswold v. Connecticut (1965))
Roe v. Wade (1973)
Established and incorporated a right to an abortion based on the right to privacy
Civil Rights
Protection of groups of people from discrimination
Equal Protection Clause - 14th Amendment
“…nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.”
Letter from Birmingham Jail
Demands the fulfillment of the Declaration and Constitution for African Americans
Social Movements
Civil rights, women’s rights, LGBTQ rights are supported and motivated by the equal protection clause
Brown v. Board of Education (1954)
Racially segregated public schools violate the 14th Amendment
Civil Rights Act of 1964
Banned discrimination based on race, color, sex, religion, or national origin in public accommodations or employment
Voting Rights Act of 1965
Banned literacy tests and other obstacles to vote
Impact of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and the 24th Amendment
A significant increase in minority voter turnout
Equal Pay Act of 1963
Requires equal pay for equal work; bans wage discrimination on the basis of sex, race, national origin, or religion
Title IX of the Educational Amendments of 1973
Prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex in any federally funded education program
Jim Crow Laws
State laws that legalized racial discrimination and segregation
Affirmative Action
Preferential hiring and admission policies for minorities
Core Values
- Individualism
- Equality of Opportunity
- Free Enterprise
- Rule of Law
- Limited Government
Political Ideology
A consistent set of ideas and beliefs about the purpose and scope of government
Conservative
- Less economic regulation
- Lower taxes
- Cut government spending on entitlement programs to promote social and economic equality
- Increased defense spending, more police, more punishment of crime
- The government should protect traditional values even if this intrudes on individual freedoms
- Support vouchers to attend private schools, including religious schools
- Favor social order and security with economic freedom
Liberal
- More economic regulation
- Higher taxes on those with higher incomes
- Favor government spending on entitlement programs to promote social and economic equality
- Decreased defense spending, protecting the rights of the accused
- Believe the government should not regulate personal, private matters
- Support public education, and oppose vouchers, especially those that can be used to attend religious schools
- Favor social liberty and economic security/order
Libertarian
- Little or no regulation beyond the protection of property rights
- Minimal Taxation
- Dramatic decrease in government spending, including on entitlement programs
- Favor a dramatic reduction in defense spending, decriminalization of “victimless” crimes, and protecting the rights of the accused
- Believe the government should not regulate private, personal matters
- Favor privatization of education, expanded school choice
- Favor social and economic liberty
Keynesian Economics
The government should stimulate the economy during recessions by increasing government spending
Supply-Side Economics
The government should stimulate the economy during recessions by cutting taxes to encourage businesses to grow
Fiscal Policy
Government tax and spending policies; conducted by Congress and the president
Monetary Policy
Controlling the money supply and adjusting interest rates to stabilize. the economy. To lower unemployment, the Fed should increase the money supply and decrease interest rates. To lower inflation, the Fed should decrease the money supply and increase interest rates.
Political Socialization
The process of a person obtaining their political ideology (Family, School, Friends, Religious)
Generational Effects on Political Socialization
Different voting patterns and political beliefs for people in different generations
Lifecycle Effects
People focus on different issues at different points in life
Opinion Poll
Poll to measure public opinion on a particular issue
Benchmark Poll
Used to find out where a candidate stands before any campaigning; strengths, weaknesses, what issues to focus on
Tracking Poll
A continuous poll to chart changes in opinion over time
Entrance/Exit Poll
Taken on election day; used to predict election outcome, to gain insight into voting behavior
Random Sample
All persons in the population have an equal chance of being selected
Stratified Sample
Population is divided into subgroups and weighted based on population demographics
Sampling Error
A polling error arising from using only a sample of a population, +/- 3% is acceptable
Focus Group
A small group of voters chosen to participate in an in-depth discussion about a candidate
Expansion of Voting Rights
- 15th Amend. - Race can’t be a barrier
- 19th Amend. - Sex can’t be a barrier
- 26th Amend. - Voting age 18
- 24th Amend. - Banned poll taxes
Party-Line Voting
Supporting a party by voting for candidates from one political party for all public offices
Retrospective Voting
Voting to decide whether the party or candidate in power should be reelected based on the recent past
Prospective Voting
Voting based on a prediction of how a party or candidate will perform in the future
Rational Choice Voting
Voting based on what is perceived to be in his individual interest
Political Efficacy
A person’s belief that they can affect political outcomes
State & Election Policy
- Registration requirement
- Early voting
- Mail-in voting
Most Likely to Vote
- More educated
- Higher income
- Middle-aged/older
- Religious
Voting Decisions Influenced By
- Party Identification
- Political Ideology
- Race, Gender, Religion
- Candidate Characteristics
- Contemporary Political Issues
Linkage Institutions
Channels that allow individuals to communicate their preferences to policymakers
Political Parties
Primary Goal: to gain power and win elections
1. Mobilize, educate voters
2. Establish a platform
3. Recruit & nominate candidates
4. Campaign management
5. Raise money
6. Media strategy
Candidate-Centered Politics
Some voters focus more on the candidate than his or her party
Campaign Finance Law
Candidates are now less reliant on their party for fundraising
Regional Realignment
Long-lasting regional shift of party loyalty (South was Democratic but is now strongly Republican)
Party Dealignment
A decrease in party identification and a rise in no-party affiliation
Informal Barriers to Third-Party Candidates
- Lack of fundraising
- Lack of media attention
- Belief it’s a wasted vote
Interest Groups
Purpose: to influence public policy for a specific purpose (gun rights, women’s reproductive rights”
1. Educating voters and officeholders
2. lobbying
3. Drafting legislation
4. Mobilizing membership
Lobbying
Persuade political leaders to support the group’s positions (specialists) threaten money, pressure
Iron Triangles/Issue Networks
Influence how policies are made and implemented (congressional committees, interest groups, bureaucratic agencies)
Presidential Election
- Win Primary Election (win the majority of delegates at national convention)
- General Election (270 electoral college votes)
Open Primary
Any registered voter can participate in either party’s primary
Closed Primary
Only registered party members can participate
Caucus
A meeting of party members to choose a party’s candidate for the general election
Swing States
Candidates focus on competitive states with more electoral votes
Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002
Banned soft money, “stand by your ad” provision, and limits on the timing of independent political ads
Soft Money
Money contributed to political parties for “party-building” purposes, unlimited and unregulated
Citizens United v. FEC (2010)
Political spending by corporations, associations, and labor unions is a form of protected speech under the First Amendment
Political Action Committees
Raise money to support a candidate or cause
Super PACs
Independent expenditure-only committees; can raise and spend unlimited amounts independent of the candidate
Watchdog
Investigative journalism
Horserace Journalism
Report on polling and popularity rather than more substantive reporting
