AP Psychology Midterm Study Set Flashcards
behaviorism
shifting psychology’s focus to observing and controlling behavior and how it’s influenced by our environment
biopsychology
the study of how biology influences behavior
cognitive psychology
the study of cognitions and thoughts and their relationship to experiences and actions
empirical method
method for acquiring knowledge based on observation; including experimentation, instead of a method based only on forms of logical argument or previous authorities
functionalism
the focus on how mental activities help an organism adapt to its environment
humanism
the perspective within psychology that emphasizes the potential for good, that is natural to all humans
introspection
the process in which someone examines their own conscious experience in an attempt to break its component parts
psychoanalytical theory
the unconscious affecting conscious behavior
psychology
the scientific study of the mind and behavior
structuralism
understanding conscious experience through introspection
clinical case study
an observational research study that focuses on one or a few people
confirmation bias
the tendency to ignore evidence that disproves ideas or beliefs
confounding variable
an unanticipated outside factor that affects both variables of interest, often giving the false impression that the changes in one variable causes changes in another variable, when actually the outside factor causes change in both variables
control group
serves as a basis for comparison (and controls) for factors that might affect the results of the study, by holding these factors as constant across groups, the only difference between them is the experimental manipulation
correlation
the relationship between two or more variables; when two are correlated, one changes as the other one does
correlation coefficient
numbers from -1 to +1, indicating and representing the strength and direction of the relationship between variables, usually represented as r
cross-sectional research
compares multiple segments of a population at a single time
debriefing
when an experiment involving deception (someone believing something that isn’t true)
dependant variable
the outcome factor in an experiment; the variable that may change in response to manipulations on the independent variable
double-blind study
an experiment in which both the researchers and participants are blind to group assignments with who was given the placebo vs. the treatment
empirical
based on and connected to tangible evidence that can be observed (not a theory)
experimental group
the group that is being tested on to answer a search question, and exposed to treatment
hypothesis
a testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables
illusionary correlation
seeing relationships between two things when in reality no such relationship exists
independent variable
the variable that is controlled or influenced by the experimenter, this variable should be the only difference between the experiential and control group
inductive reasoning
conclusions that are drawn from observation
longitudinal research
studies where the same group of individuals is surveyed or observed repeatedly over an extended period of time or throughout many developmental stages
naturalistic observation
observation of behavior in its natural setting
negative correlation
when two variables change in different directions, with one becoming larger as the other becomes smaller
operational definition
the description of what actions and operations will be used to measure the dependent variables and manipulate the independent variables
population
the overall group of individuals that the researchers are interested in
positive correlation
when two variables change in the same direction, both becoming either larger or smaller
random assignment
a subset of a larger population in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected
reliability
consistency and reproducibility of a given result
replicate
repeating an experiment using different samples to determine the research’s reliability
sample
subset of individuals selected from the larger population
statistical analysis
determines how likely any difference between experimental groups is due to chance
survey
list of questions to be answered by research participants (self reporting)
theory
a well-developed set of ideas that proposes reasoning or an explanation for what has occurred and been observed
validity
accuracy of a given result in measuring what it is designed to measure
action potential
electrical signal that moves down the neuron’s axon
agonist
a drug that mimics or strengthens the effects of a neurotransmitter
neurotransmitter
a chemical substance that is released at the end of a nerve fiber by the arrival of a nerve impulse, its job is to carry chemical signals from one neuron to the next cell
axon
major extension of the soma
soma
the region of the neuron that contains the nucleus
dendrite
branch-like extensions of the soma that receives incoming signals from other neutrons
glial cell
nervous system cell that provides physical and metabolic support to neurons, including neuronal insulation, communication, and nutrient, and waste support
neuron
cells in the nervous system that act as interconnected information processors, which are essential for all tasks of the nervous system
resting potential
the state of readiness of a neron membrane’s potential between signals
reuptake
when a neurotransmitter is pumped back into the neuron that released it
semipermeable membrane
a cell membrane that allows smaller molecules or molecules without an electrical charge to pass through it, but stops larger or highly charged molecules
synaptic cleft/ synapse
a small gap between two neurons where communication occurs
threshold of excitation
level of charge in the cell membrane that causes the neuron to become active
circadian rhythm
the biological rhythm that occurs over approx. 24 hrs
collective unconsciousness
carl jung’s idea that a collection of unconscious thoughts are shared amongst all humans
consciousness
awareness of internal and external stimuli
delta wave
a type of brain wave that occurs during stage 3 NREM sleep, which has a high amplitude and low frequency of less than 3 Hz
jet lag
the collection of symptoms brought on by travel from one-time zone to another that results from the mismatch between our internal circadian cycles and our environment
melatonin
the hormone produced by the endocrine gland that serves as an important regulator of the sleep-wake cycle
narcolepsy
sleep disorder where their body cannot resist falling sleep during the day
night terror
sleep disorder where they experience a sense of panic
nREM
period of sleep outside of rapid eye movement (REM sleep)
obstructive sleep apnea
sleep disorder defined by episodes when breathing stops during sleep as a result of blockage of the airway
parasomnia
one of a group of sleep disorders characterized by unwanted, disruptive motor activity and/or experiences during sleep
pineal gland
endocrine structure located inside the brain that releases melatonin
REM sleep (rapid eye movement)
period of sleep characterized by brain waves very similar to those during wakefulness and by darting movements of the eyes under closed eyelids
sleep apnea
sleep disorder is defined by episodes during which breathing stops during sleep
sleep debt
result of insufficient sleep on a chronic basis
sleep rebound
sleep-deprived individuals will experience shorter sleep inactivity during subsequent opportunities for sleep
stage 1 sleep
the transitional phase that occurs between wakefulness and sleeps; the period during which a person drifts off to sleep
stage 2 sleep
the body goes into deep relaxation; characterized by the appearance of sleep spindles
stage 3 sleep
deep sleep characterized by low-frequency, high amplitude delta waves
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
area of the hypothalamus in which the body’s biological clock is located
absolute threshold
minimum amount of stimulus energy that must be present for the stimulus to be detected 50% of the time
afterimage
continuation of a visual sensation after removal of the stimulus
bottom-up processing
system in which perceptions are built from sensory input
cone
specialized photoreceptor that works best in bright light conditions and detects color
feature detectors
the visual system has feature detectors for lines and angles of different orientations as well as for more complex stimuli, such as faces
fovea
small indentation in the retina that contains cones; central focus area of the retina
frequency
number of waves that pass a given point in a given time period
ganglion cells
the only type of neuron in the retina that sends signals to the brain resulting from visual stimulation
intensity/amplitude
the quantitative value of a stimulus or sensation
just noticeable difference
the difference in stimuli required to detect a difference between the stimuli
opponent-process theory of color perception
color is coded in opponent pairs: black-white, yellow-blue, and red-green
perception
way that sensory information is interpreted and consciously experienced
pitch
perception of a sound’s frequency
prosopagnosia
“face blindness”
pupil
the small opening in the eye through which light passes
retina
the light-sensitive lining of the eye
rod
specialized photoreceptor that works well in low-light conditions
sensory adaptation
not perceiving stimuli that remain relatively constant over prolonged periods of time
signal detection theory
change in stimulus detection as a function of the current mental state
top-down processing
interpretation of sensations is influenced by available knowledge, experiences, and thoughts
transduction
conversion from sensory stimulus energy to action potential
trichromatic theory of color perception
color vision is mediated by the activity across the three groups of cones
