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AP Psych > AP Psych Vocab > Flashcards

AP Psych Vocab Flashcards

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1
Q

Empiricism

A

Knowledge comes from experience via the senses

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2
Q

Structuralism

A

Using introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind

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3
Q

Functionalism

A

School of psychology that focused on how mental and behavioral processes function – how they allow the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish

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4
Q

Nature – nurture issue

A

Long-standing controversy over contributions that genes and experience make to development of psychological traits and behaviors

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5
Q

Natural selection

A

Among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

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6
Q

Neuroscience

A

Focus on how body and brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences

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7
Q

Evolutionary

A

How the natural selection of traits promotes the perpetuation of one’s genes

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8
Q

Behavior genetics

A

How much are genes and our environment influence our individual differences

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9
Q

Psychodynamic

A

How behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts

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10
Q

Behavioral

A

How we learn observable responses

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11
Q

Cognitive

A

How we encode, process, store, and retrieve info

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12
Q

Social – cultural

A

How behavior and thinking very across situations and cultures

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13
Q

Basic research

A

Pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

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14
Q

Applied research

A

Scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

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15
Q

Clinical psychologists

A

Study, assess, and treat troubled people

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16
Q

Psychiatrist

A

Deal with psychological disorders and our physicians who sometimes provide medical treatments as well as psychological therapy

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17
Q

Hindsight bias

A

20/20 hindsight vision, tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

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18
Q

Overconfidence

A

Tendency for people to be more confident than correct

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19
Q

Confirmation bias

A

Whatever you are searching for you will find, confident in misinformation

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20
Q

Critical thinking

A

Thinking that doesn’t blindly accept arguments and conclusions, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions

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21
Q

Case study

A

Study one individual in hopes of revealing something truthful about us all

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22
Q

Survey

A

Large sample size on peoples opinions, looks at many cases with less depth

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23
Q

Naturalistic observation

A

Observing things in natural habitat

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24
Q

Correlation

A

When two factors vary or change together

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25
Q

False consensus effect

A

Tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors

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26
Q

Population

A

Whole group you wanted to study

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27
Q

Random sample

A

Fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

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28
Q

Correlation coefficient

A

Statistical measure a relationship revealing how closely two things very together and how well either one predicts the other

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29
Q

Illusory correlation

A

People try to make connections that aren’t there

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30
Q

Placebo

A

Thinking you will be affected by something then you will

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31
Q

Random assignment

A

Randomly picking who goes in which group

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32
Q

Single-blind

A

Subjects don’t know if they are in the experimental or control group

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33
Q

Double blind

A

Both subject and experimenters don’t know who is in experimental or control group

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34
Q

Standard deviation

A

Measure of how much scores vary from the mean

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35
Q

Statistical significance

A

Statement of how likely it is that an obtained results occurred by chance

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36
Q

Neuron

A

Nerve cell; basic building block of nervous system

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37
Q

Dendrites

A

Bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct a impulses toward the cell body

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38
Q

Axon

A

Extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers through which messages pass to other neurons or two muscles or glands

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39
Q

Myelin sheath

A

Layer of fatty tissue segmental he encasing the fibers of many neurons, allowing greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next

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40
Q

Action potential

A

Neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down the axon and is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of the channels and in the axon’s membrane

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41
Q

Cell body and soma

A

Contain nucleus, control center

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42
Q

Axon terminal

A

End of axon which has vesicles that contain neurotransmitters

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43
Q

Vesicles

A

Contain neurotransmitters

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44
Q

Synapse

A

Junction between axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of receiving neuron

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45
Q

Refractory period

A

So that the cycle can’t start over right away, during period where sodium and potassium ions switch back

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46
Q

Plasticity

A

Adaptability of brain

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47
Q

Threshold

A

Level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse, happens if excitatory signals outvote the inhibitory signals

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48
Q

Neurotransmitter

A

Chemical messengers

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49
Q

Acetylcholine (ACh)

A

The neurotransmitter that plays a vital role in learning and memory, it triggers muscle contractions

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50
Q

Dopamine

A

The neurotransmitter that influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion

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51
Q

Serotonin

A

The neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal

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52
Q

Norepinephrine

A

The neurotransmitter that controls alertness and arousal

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53
Q

GABA

A

Inhibitory neurotransmitter

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54
Q

Glutamate

A

Excitatory neurotransmitter

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55
Q

Endorphins

A

Natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and pleasure

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56
Q

Agonist

A

Drug molecule similar to neurotransmitter that mimics it’s effect or blocks a neurotransmitter’s reuptake

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57
Q

Antagonist

A

Inhibits a neurotransmitter’s release

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58
Q

Phrenology

A

Ill-fated theory that claimed bumps on the skull could reveal our mental abilities and our character traits

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59
Q

Biological psychologist

A

Study of psychology with biological roots in (chemicals)

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60
Q

Nervous system

A

Body’s speedy, electrochemical communication system

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61
Q

Central nervous system (CNS)

A

Brain and spinal cord

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62
Q

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

A

The sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body

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63
Q

Nerves

A

Neural cables containing many axons. The bundled axons connect the CNS with muscles, glands, and sense organs

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64
Q

Sensory neuron

A

Send info from the body’s tissues and sensory organs in word to the brain and spinal cord which process info

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65
Q

Motor neurons

A

Carrie outgoing info from CNS to muscles and glands

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66
Q

Somatic nervous system

A

Controls movement of our skeletal muscles (voluntary)

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67
Q

Autonomic nervous system

A

Controls glands and muscles of our internal organs (involuntary)

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68
Q

Sympathetic nervous system

A

Arouses body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

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69
Q

Parasympathetic nervous system

A

Calms body, conserving it’s energy

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70
Q

Reflex

A

Simple, autonomic, inborn response to a sensory stimulus

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71
Q

Neural networks

A

Interconnected neural cells

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72
Q

Brainstem

A

Part of brain for automatic survival functions

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73
Q

Medulla oblangata

A

Part of brainstem that controls heartbeat and respiration

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74
Q

PONS

A

Part of brain stem that controls respiration

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75
Q

Reticular formation

A

Part of brainstem that involved with our arousal

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76
Q

Limbic system

A

Part of hind midbrain that is the emotional center. Doughnut shaped system at border of brainstem and cerebral hemispheres

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77
Q

Amygdala

A

Part of limbus system in brain, center for fear and aggression. Two almond- shaped neural clusters

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78
Q

Hippocampus

A

Part of the limbic system in brain, center for processing emotion and long-term memory

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79
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Part of hind midbrain below thalamus, reward center, motivational center, controls hunger, thirst, sex. Governs endocrine system via pituitary gland

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80
Q

Thalamus

A

Brain’s sensory switchboard, part of hind mid brain that sends sensory messages to the specific lobes to process the info

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81
Q

Cerebellum

A

Part of hind midbrain involved with balance, coordination, movement

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82
Q

Lesion

A

Tissue destruction of tiny clusters of normal or defective brain cells, leaving the surroundings unharmed

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83
Q

MRI

A

Head is put in a strong magnetic field, which aligns spinning atoms, a brief pulse of radio waves disorients the atoms momentarily, when atoms return to their normal spin they released detectable signals which become computer – generated images of their concentrations

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84
Q

EEG

A

Traces electrical activity in the brain’s billions of neurons sweeps and regular waves across its surface

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85
Q

CT scan

A

Examines brain by taking x-ray photographs that can reveal brain damage

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86
Q

PET scan

A

Depicts brain activity by showing each brain areas consumption of its chemical fuel (sugar glucose)

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87
Q

Motor cortex

A

Part of frontal lobe in brain that controls fine motor skills

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88
Q

Broca’s area

A

Part of left frontal lobe in brain that controls speech

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89
Q

Pre-frontal cortex

A

Part of frontal lobe in brain that controls decision making

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90
Q

Auditory cortex

A

Part of temporal lobe in brain that controls hearing

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91
Q

Wernicke’s area

A

Part of left temporal lobe in brain that is the center for understanding spoken language

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92
Q

Sensory cortex

A

Part of parietal lobe in brain that is in charge of sense of touch

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93
Q

Visual cortex

A

Part of the occipital lobe in brain that controls eyesight

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94
Q

Angular gyrus

A

Part of occipital lobe and brain that changes visual info into auditory info

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95
Q

Association areas

A

Areas in brain where we don’t have lobes, makes connections of memory, emotion and rationality

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96
Q

Cerebral cortex

A

Intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres, body’s ultimate control and information processing center

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97
Q

Glial cells

A

Glue cells in nervous system that support, nourish and protect neurons

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98
Q

Frontal lobe

A

Part of cerebral cortex in brain behind your forehead, involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments

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99
Q

Parietal lobe

A

Part of cerebral cortex in brain at top and to the rear, include sensory cortex

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100
Q

Occipital lobe

A

Part of cerebral cortex in brain at the back of head, visual areas, which receive visual information from the opposite visual field

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101
Q

Temporal lobe

A

Part of cerebral cortex in brain just above ears, includes auditory areas which receive auditory info primarily from opposite ear

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102
Q

Corpus callosum

A

Large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and caring messages between them

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103
Q

Split brain

A

Two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting connecting fibers (mainly of corpus callosum)

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104
Q

Endocrine system

A

Bodies slow chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the blood stream

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105
Q

Hormones

A

Chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another

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106
Q

Adrenal glands

A

Pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys they secrete the hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline), which help to arouse the body in times of stress

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107
Q

Pituitary gland

A

Most influential gland, under influence of hypothalamus, regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands

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108
Q

Chromosomes

A

Threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes

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109
Q

DNA

A

Complex molecule containing the genetic info that makes up the chromosomes, double helix strand held together by bonds between nucleotides

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110
Q

Genes

A

Biochemical units of heredity you that make up the chromosomes; a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein

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111
Q

Genome

A

Complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in its chromosomes

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112
Q

Mutations

A

Random error and gene replication that leads to the change in the sequence of nucleotides, source of all genetic diversity

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113
Q

Evolutionary psychologists

A

People who study the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

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114
Q

Behavior geneticists

A

Assess our differences from one another -> how much is related to jeans and how much environment

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115
Q

Identical twins

A

Develop from a single fertilized egg that splits into; they are genetically identical

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116
Q

Fraternal twins

A

Develop from separate eggs and are genetically no more similar than ordinary brothers and sisters

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117
Q

Temperament

A

Persons characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

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118
Q

Heritability

A

The extent to which variation among individuals can be attributed to their differing genes

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119
Q

Molecular genetics

A

Subfield of Biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes

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120
Q

Culture

A

Behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and is passed down to generations

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121
Q

Norms

A

Rules for accepted and expected behavior

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122
Q

Memes

A

Self replicating cultural mutations (ideas, fashions, innovations) passed from person to person

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123
Q

X chromosome

A

Sex chromosome given by Mom and possibly Dad

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124
Q

Y chromosome

A

Sex chromosome only given by Dad

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125
Q

Testosterone

A

Starts the development of male sex organs at the 7th week

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126
Q

Role

A

Set of expectations about a social position, defining how we should behave

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127
Q

Gender role

A

Set of expected behaviors for males and females

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128
Q

Gender

A

Biological and social category of male or female

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129
Q

Gender identity

A

Sense of being male or female

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130
Q

Gender-typed

A

The developing/learning of a traditional masculine or feminine role

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131
Q

Social learning theory

A

We learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished for behavior

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132
Q

Gender schema theory

A

Gender becomes a lens through which you view your experiences

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133
Q

Developmental psychologists

A

Study physical, mental, and social changes throughout the human life cycle

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134
Q

Zygote

A

Fertilized eggs; two week period of rapid cell division

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135
Q

Embryo

A

Developing human from two weeks to eight weeks

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136
Q

Fetus

A

Developing human organism from nine weeks after conception to birth

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137
Q

Teratogens

A

Agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development causing harm

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138
Q

Fetal alcohol syndrome

A

Physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking. Symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions

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139
Q

Rooting reflex

A

Babies tendency to when touched on the cheek, they open their mouth and search for the nipple

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140
Q

Sucking reflex

A

Anything put in a baby’s mouth, they will suck on it

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141
Q

Moro reflex

A

If baby feels like they’re falling their arms reach out to grab something

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142
Q

Habituation

A

Decrease in responding with repeated stimulation; newborns become bored looking at repeatedly presented visual stimulus

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143
Q

Maturation

A

Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively on uninfluenced by experience

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144
Q

Infantile amnesia

A

Hippocampus doesn’t fully develop until four, and they can’t recollect episodic memories

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145
Q

Implicit bias

A

We are innately afraid of things that are different from us because of the way we organize our world (schemas)

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146
Q

Schema

A

Concept or framework that organizes and interprets info, mental molds that we pour our experience into

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147
Q

Assimilation

A

Interpreting ones new experience in terms of one’s existing schemas

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148
Q

Accommodation

A

Adapting one’s current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new info

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149
Q

Cognition

A

All mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering and communicating

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150
Q

Sensorimotor stage

A

0-2, where infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

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151
Q

Object permanence

A

The awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived (until 8 months)

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152
Q

Preoperational stage

A

2-6 or 7, during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

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153
Q

Conservation

A

Principle that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape/forms of objects

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154
Q

Egocentric

A

And ability to perceive things from another’s point of view

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155
Q

Theory of mind

A

Realize Asian that people have their own minds including feelings, perceptions, and thoughts and the behavior these could predict

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156
Q

Autism

A

Disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others’ states of mind

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157
Q

Concrete operational stage

A

6 or 7-11, during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

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158
Q

Formal operational stage

A

12+, during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

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159
Q

Stranger anxiety

A

Fear of strangers that infants display beginning by about 8 months

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160
Q

Attachment

A

Emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to caregiver and showing distress on separation

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161
Q

Critical period

A

Optimal period shortly after birth when organism’s exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development

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162
Q

Imprinting

A

Process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

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163
Q

Basic trust

A

Sense that world is predictable and trustworthy

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164
Q

Self-concept

A

Sense of their own identity and personal worth

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165
Q

Authoritarian

A

Parenting style that imposes rules and expects a obedience

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166
Q

Permissive

A

Parenting style that submits to children’s desires and makes few demands and little punishments

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167
Q

Authoritative

A

Parenting style that’s demanding and responsive, sets rules, enforces them, explains the reasons and encourages open discussion

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168
Q

Adolescence

A

Transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

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169
Q

Puberty

A

Period of sexual maturation, where a person becomes capable of reproducing

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170
Q

Primary sex characteristics

A

The body (tested, ovaries, external genitalia) that makes sexual reproduction possible

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171
Q

Secondary sex characteristics

A

Non-reproductive sexual characteristics (female breasts/male voice quality)

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172
Q

Menarche

A

First menstrual period

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173
Q

Preconventional morality

A

Before 9, have a morality of self interest. They obey to avoid punishment or gain rewards

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174
Q

Conventional morality

A

Early adolescence, level that cares for others and uphold the laws/social rules because they are simply laws. May approve actions that will give them social approval

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175
Q

Postconventional morality

A

Some who develop abstract reasoning of formal operational thought reach this level. This level affirms people’s agreed-upon rights or follows their personal basic ethical principles

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176
Q

Dementia

A

Loss of brain cells that initially displays a loss of newest memories

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177
Q

Test of recall

A

When we need to come up with something without any help at all

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178
Q

Test of recognition

A

You are given clues, hints, and options

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179
Q

Identity

A

One’s sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

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180
Q

Intimacy

A

In Erikson’s theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; the primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood

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181
Q

Menopause

A

Type of natural ending of menstruation and ability to reproduce declines

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182
Q

Alzheimer’s disease

A

Progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and finally physical functioning

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183
Q

Cross-sectional studies

A

Study in which people of different ages are compared with another

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184
Q

Longitudinal studies

A

Research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period

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185
Q

Crystallized intelligence

A

One’s accumulated knowledge and verbal skills as reflected in vocab in an analogy tests

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186
Q

Fluid intelligence

A

One’s ability to reason speedily and abstractly as in solving logic problems

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187
Q

Social clock

A

Culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood and retirement

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188
Q

Sensation

A

Process by which are sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

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189
Q

Perception

A

Process of organizing and interpreting sensory info enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

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190
Q

Bottom-up processing

A

Analysis that begins with the sensor scepters and works up to the brains integration of sensory info

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191
Q

Top-down processing

A

Info processing guided by higher level mental processes as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

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192
Q

Psychophysics

A

Study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them

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193
Q

Absolute threshold

A

Minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time

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194
Q

Signal detection theory

A

Theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus amid background stimulation. Assumes there is no single absolute threshold him and that detection depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation, and level of fatigue

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195
Q

Subliminal

A

Below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness

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196
Q

Difference threshold

A

Minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time we experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference

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197
Q

Weber’s law

A

Principle that to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage, rather than buy a constant amount

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198
Q

Sensory adaptation

A

Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation

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199
Q

Transduction

A

Conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies into neural impulses

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200
Q

Wavelength

A

Distance from peak of one light or soundwave to the peak of the next

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201
Q

Hue

A

Color we experience

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202
Q

Intensity

A

I’m out of energy and a light or soundwave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, determined by the wave’s amplitude

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203
Q

Pupil

A

Adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters

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204
Q

Iris

A

Ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around pupil and controls size of pupil opening

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205
Q

Lens

A

Transparent structure that changes shape to help focus images on the retina

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206
Q

Accommodation

A

Eye’s lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina

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207
Q

Retina

A

Light-sensitive inner surface of an eye, containing receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual info

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208
Q

Acuity

A

Sharpness of vision

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209
Q

Nearsightedness

A

Condition in which nearby objects are seen more clearly than distant objects because distant objects focus in front of the retina

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210
Q

Farsightedness

A

Condition in which faraway objects are seeing more clearly than near objects because the image of near objects is focused behind retina

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211
Q

Rods

A

Retinal receptors that detect black/white/gray; necessary for preferable and twilight vision when cones don’t respond

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212
Q

Cones

A

Receptor cells that are concentrated near center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions they detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations

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213
Q

Optic nerve

A

Nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

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214
Q

Blind spot

A

Point at which optic nerve leaves eye creating a blind area because no receptor cells are located there

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215
Q

Fovea

A

Central focal point in retina around which the eye’s cones cluster

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216
Q

Feature detectors

A

Nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, movement

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217
Q

Parallel processing

A

Processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brains natural mode of info processing for many functions, including vision

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218
Q

Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory

A

Theory that the retina contains three different color receptors – one most sensitive to read, Wintergreen, want to blue – which one stimulated in combination can produce the perception of any color

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219
Q

Opponent – process theory

A

Theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green/yellow-blue/white-black) enable color vision

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220
Q

Color constancy

A

Perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object

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221
Q

Audition

A

Sense of hearing

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222
Q

Frequency

A

Number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time

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223
Q

Pitch

A

Tone’s highness or lowness; depends on frequency

224
Q

Middle ear

A

Chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, stirrups) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window to a snail shaped tube

225
Q

Inner ear

A

Innermost part of the ear, containing cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs

226
Q

Cochlea

A

A coil, bony, fluid filled tube in the inner ear through which soundwaves trigger nerve impulses

227
Q

Place theory

A

In hearing, theory that links pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated

228
Q

Frequency theory

A

In hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, enabling us to sense its pitch

229
Q

Conduction hearing loss

A

Hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts soundwaves to the cochlea (eardrum or tiny bones in middle ear damage)

230
Q

Sensorineural hearing loss

A

Hearing loss caused by damage to cochlea’s receptor cells or two auditory nerves

231
Q

Gate – control theory

A

Theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological gate that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The gate is open by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity and large fibers or by info coming from brain

232
Q

Sensory interaction

A

Principle that one sense may influence another as when the smell of food and influences its taste

233
Q

Kinesthesis

A

System for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts

234
Q

Vestibular sense

A

Sense of body movement and position, including sense of balance

235
Q

Selective attention

A

At any moment we focus our awareness and only a limited aspect of all the experience

236
Q

Visual capture

A

Tendency for vision to dominate the other senses

237
Q

Gestalt

A

And organized whole, Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of info into meaningful wholes

238
Q

Figure – ground

A

Organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (ground)

239
Q

Grouping

A

Perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups

240
Q

Proximity

A

Group nearby figures together

241
Q

Similarity

A

Figures similar to each other we grouped together

242
Q

Continuity

A

We perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones

243
Q

Connectedness

A

When they are uniform and linked, we perceive spots, lines, or areas as a single unit

244
Q

Closure

A

We fill in gaps to create a complete whole object

245
Q

Depth perception

A

Ability to see objects in 3D although images that strike retina are in 2D; allow us to judge distance

246
Q

Visual cliff

A

Lab device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

247
Q

Binocular cues

A

Depth cues that depend on the use of two eyes

248
Q

Retinal disparity

A

By comparing images from the two eyeballs, the brain computes distance. The greater the disparity between the two images, the closer the object

249
Q

Convergence

A

Extent to which eyes converge inward when looking at an object

250
Q

Relative size

A

If we assume that two objects are similar in size, we perceive the one that casts the smaller retinal image as further away

251
Q

Interposition

A

If one object partially blocks our view of another we perceive it as closer

252
Q

Relative clarity

A

Because light from distant objects passes through more atmosphere, we perceive hazy objects as farther away than sharp, clear objects

253
Q

Texture gradient

A

A gradual change from a coarse, distinct texture to a fine, indistinct texture signals increasing distance

254
Q

Relative height

A

We perceive objects higher in our field of vision as farther away, Since we perceive the lower part of a figure – ground illustration as closer, we perceive it as a figure

255
Q

Relative motion

A

As we move objects that are actually stable appear to move, objects closer than fixation point appear to move backward, while objects beyond point appear to move with you, the farther away the object, the slower its apparent speed

256
Q

Linear perspective

A

Parallel lines appear to converge with distance

257
Q

Light and shadow

A

Nearby objects reflect more light to our eyes

258
Q

Phi phenomenon

A

And illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in succession, you perceive a single light moving back and forth between them

259
Q

Perceptual constancy

A

Perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent lightness, color, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change

260
Q

Perceptual adaptation

A

In vision, ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field

261
Q

Perceptual set

A

Mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

262
Q

Human factors psychology

A

Branch of psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be adapted to human behaviors

263
Q

Extrasensory perception (ESP)

A

Controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory and input (telepathy, precognition)

264
Q

Parapsychology

A

Study of paranormal phenomena including ESP and psychokinesis

265
Q

Consciousness

A

Our awareness of ourselves and our environment

266
Q

Biological rhythms

A

Periodic physiological fluctuations

267
Q

Annual cycles

A

Geese migrate, grizzly bears hibernate, and humans may experience seasonal variations in appetite, sleep length, moods, and during winter’s dark months SAD

268
Q

28 day cycles

A

Average female menstrual cycle

269
Q

24 hour cycles

A

Humans experience day cycles of varying and falling alertness, body temperature and growth hormone secretion

270
Q

90 minute cycles

A

We cycle through various stages of sleep

271
Q

Circadian rhythm

A

Biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24 hour cycle

272
Q

REM sleep

A

Rapid eye movement sleep

273
Q

Alpha waves

A

Relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

274
Q

Sleep

A

Periodic, natural, reversible loss of consciousness, slow breathing/irregular brain waves

275
Q

Hallucinations

A

False sensory experiences, sensory experiences that occur without a sensory stimulus

276
Q

Delta waves

A

Large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep

277
Q

Insomnia

A

Recurring problems and falling or staying asleep

278
Q

Narcolepsy

A

Sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. Sufferer may lapse right into REM sleep, often at inopportune times

279
Q

Sleep apnea

A

Sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and consequent momentary reawakenings

280
Q

Night terrors

A

Sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; occur in stage 4 sleep within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered

281
Q

Dreams

A

Sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind. Notable for hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, incongruities, and for dreamer’s delusional acceptance of content and later difficulties remembering it

282
Q

Manifest content

A

According to Freud, the remembered storyline of the dream

283
Q

Latent content

A

The underlying meaning of a dream, Freud believed that a dreams latent content functions as a safety valve for unacceptable behavior

284
Q

REM rebound

A

Tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation

285
Q

Hypnosis

A

A social interaction in which one person (hypnotist) suggest to another (subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur

286
Q

Posthypnotic amnesia

A

Supposed inability to recall what one experienced during hypnosis; induced by the hypnotist’s suggestion

287
Q

Posthypnotic suggestions

A

Suggestion made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors

288
Q

Dissociation

A

Split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others

289
Q

Hidden observer

A

Hilgard’s term describing a hypnotized subject’s awareness of experiences, such as pain, that go unreported during hypnosis

290
Q

Psychoactive drugs

A

Chemical substance that alters perceptions and mood

291
Q

Tolerance

A

Diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring user to take larger doses before experiencing the drug’s effect

292
Q

Withdrawal

A

Discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing use of an addictive drug

293
Q

Physical dependence

A

Physiological need for drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when drug is discontinued

294
Q

Psychological dependence

A

Psychological need to use drugs, such as to relieve negative emotions

295
Q

Depressants

A

“Downers” calm neural activity and slow body functions

296
Q

Stimulants

A

“Uppers” temporarily excite neural activity and arouse body functions

297
Q

Hallucinogens

A

Distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

298
Q

Barbiturates

A

Drugs that depress the activity of the CNS, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment

299
Q

Opiates

A

Opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depressed neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

300
Q

Amphetamines

A

Drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded up body functions and associated energy and mood changes

301
Q

Ecstasy (MDMA)

A

Synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen produces of euphoria and social intimacy, but with short term health risks and long-term harm to serotonin producing neurons and to mood and cognition

302
Q

LSD

A

Powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide)

303
Q

THC

A

Major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations

304
Q

Near-death experience

A

An altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with that with; often similar to drug induced hallucinations

305
Q

Dualists

A

Presume that mind and body are two distinct entities the interact

306
Q

Monists

A

Presume that mind and body are different aspects of the same thing

307
Q

Learning

A

A relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience

308
Q

Associative learning

A

Learning that certain events occur together. Events maybe two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or response and its consequences (as an operant conditioning)

309
Q

Classical conditioning

A

Type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus that signals an UCS begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus

310
Q

Behaviorism

A

The view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes

311
Q

Unconditioned response (UCR)

A

In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the UCS

312
Q

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

A

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally – naturally and automatically – triggers a response

313
Q

Conditioned response (CR)

A

Classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral CS

314
Q

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

A

In classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an UCS, comes to trigger a CR

315
Q

Acquisition

A

Initial stage in classical conditioning; phase associating a neutral stimulus with an UCS so that neutral stimulus comes to elicit a CR. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

316
Q

Extinction

A

Diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an UCS doesn’t follow a CS; occurs in operant conditioning one response is no longer reinforced

317
Q

Spontaneous recovery

A

Reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished CR

318
Q

Generalization

A

Tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

319
Q

Discrimination

A

In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that don’t signal an UCS

320
Q

Operant conditioning

A

Type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

321
Q

Respondent behavior

A

Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus; Skinner’s term for behavior learned through classical conditioning

322
Q

Operant behavior

A

Behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

323
Q

Law of effect

A

Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and the behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

324
Q

Operant chamber

A

(Skinner box) a chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer, with attached devices to record the animals rate of bar pressing or key pecking. Used in operant conditioning research

325
Q

Shaping

A

In operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of a desired goal

326
Q

Reinforcement

A

In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

327
Q

Primary reinforcers

A

An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

328
Q

Conditioned reinforcers

A

A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; “secondary reinforcer”

329
Q

Continuous reinforcement

A

Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

330
Q

Partial (intermittent) reinforcement

A

Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

331
Q

Fixed – ratio schedules

A

In operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

332
Q

Variable – ratio schedules

A

In operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

333
Q

Fixed – interval schedules

A

In operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

334
Q

Variable – interval schedules

A

In operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

335
Q

Punishment

A

Event that decreases the behavior that it follows

336
Q

Cognitive map

A

Mental representation of the layout of one’s environment

337
Q

Latent learning

A

Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

338
Q

Overjustification effect

A

Effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do. Person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task

339
Q

Intrinsic motivation

A

Desire to perform a behavior due to one’s own interest or motivation

340
Q

Extrinsic motivation

A

A desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment

341
Q

Observational learning

A

Learning by observing others

342
Q

Modeling

A

Process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

343
Q

Mirror neurons

A

Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s actions may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy

344
Q

Prosocial

A

Positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior

345
Q

Memory

A

Persistence of learning overtime through the storage and retrieval of information

346
Q

Flashbulb memories

A

A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

347
Q

Encoding

A

Processing of information into the memory system

348
Q

Storage

A

Retention of encoded information over time

349
Q

Retrieval

A

Process of getting info out of memory storage

350
Q

Sensory memory

A

Immediate, initial recording of sensory info in the memory system

351
Q

Short-term memory

A

Activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the info is stored or forgotten

352
Q

Long-term memory

A

Relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system

353
Q

Automatic processing

A

Unconscious encoding of incidental info, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned info, such as word meanings

354
Q

Effortful processing

A

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

355
Q

Rehearsal

A

Conscious repetition of info, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage

356
Q

Spacing effect

A

Tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through mass study or practice

357
Q

Serial position effect

A

Our tendency to recall best the last and first items of a list

358
Q

Visual encoding

A

Encoding of picture images

359
Q

Acoustic encoding

A

Encoding of sound, especially the sound of words

360
Q

Semantic encoding

A

Encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words

361
Q

Imagery

A

Mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding

362
Q

Mnemonics

A

Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

363
Q

Chunking

A

Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

364
Q

Iconic memory

A

Momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

365
Q

Echoic memory

A

Momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere sounds and words can still be recalled within three or four seconds

366
Q

Long term potentiation (LTP)

A

An increase in the synapses firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believe to be a neural basis for learning and memory

367
Q

Amnesia

A

Loss of memory

368
Q

Implicit memory

A

Retention independent of conscious recollection

369
Q

Explicit memory

A

Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare her

370
Q

Hippocampus

A

Neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage

371
Q

Recall

A

Measure of memory in which the person must retrieve info learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test

372
Q

Recognition

A

Measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

373
Q

Relearning

A

Memory measure that assesses the amount of time save and learning material for a second time

374
Q

Priming

A

Activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

375
Q

Déjà vu

A

Eerie sense that I’ve experienced this before. Cues from current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience

376
Q

Mood-congruent memory

A

Tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood

377
Q

Proactive interference

A

Disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new info

378
Q

Retroactive interference

A

Disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old info

379
Q

Repression

A

In psychoanalytic theory, basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

380
Q

Misinformation effect

A

Incorporating misleading info into one’s memory of an event

381
Q

Source amnesia

A

Attributing to the wrong source an event that we have experienced, heard, read, or imagined

382
Q

Cognition

A

The mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

383
Q

Concept

A

Mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

384
Q

Prototype

A

Mental image or best example of a category, matching new items to the prototype provides a quick and easy method for including items in a category

385
Q

Algorithm

A

Methodical, logical rule, or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem

386
Q

Heuristic

A

Simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms

387
Q

Insight

A

Sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions

388
Q

Confirmation bias

A

Tendency to search for info that confirms one’s perceptions

389
Q

Fixation

A

Inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an impediment to problem-solving

390
Q

Mental set

A

Tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, especially a way that has been successful in the past but may or may not be helpful in solving a new problem

391
Q

Functional fixedness

A

Tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual function; impediment to problem-solving

392
Q

Representativeness heuristic

A

Judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead one to ignore other relevant info

393
Q

Availability heuristic

A

Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind, we pursue such events are common

394
Q

Overconfidence

A

Tendency to be more confident than correct – to overestimate the accuracy of one’s beliefs and judgments

395
Q

Framing

A

The way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments

396
Q

Belief bias

A

Tendency for one’s preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning, sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem valid or vice versa

397
Q

Believe perseverance

A

Clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

398
Q

Artificial intelligence (AI)

A

Science of designing and programming computer systems to do intelligent things and to stimulate human thought processes, such as intuitive reasoning, learning, and understanding language

399
Q

Computer neural networks

A

Computer circuits that mimic the brain’s interconnected neural cells, performing tasks such as learning to recognize visual patterns and smells

400
Q

Language

A

Our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combined them to communicate meaning

401
Q

Phoneme

A

In a spoken language, the smallest distinctive sound unit (syllables)

402
Q

Morpheme

A

In a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or part of the word (suffix, prefix)

403
Q

Grammar

A

In a language, system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others

404
Q

Semantics

A

Set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also the study of meaning

405
Q

Syntax

A

Rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language

406
Q

Babbling stage

A

Beginning at 3-4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language

407
Q

One-word stage

A

The stage in speech development, from about age 1-2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words

408
Q

Two-word stage

A

Beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two word statements

409
Q

Telegraphic speech

A

Early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram, using mostly nouns and verbs and omitting auxiliary words

410
Q

Linguistic determinism

A

Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think

411
Q

Intelligence tests

A

A method for assessing and individuals mental aptitude and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores

412
Q

Mental age

A

Measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance

413
Q

Stanford-Binet

A

Widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford University) of Binet’s original intelligence test

414
Q

Intelligence quotient (IQ)

A

Defined originally as the ratio of mental age to chronological age multiplied by 100. On contemporary intelligent test, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100

415
Q

Intelligence

A

Mental quality consisting of ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

416
Q

Factor analysis

A

Statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie one’s total score

417
Q

General intelligence

A

(g) A general intelligence factor that Spearman and others believe underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test

418
Q

Savant syndrome

A

Condition in which a person otherwise limited mental ability has an exceptional specific skill

419
Q

Emotional intelligence

A

Ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions

420
Q

Creativity

A

Ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

421
Q

Aptitude test

A

Test designed to predict the person’s future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn

422
Q

Achievement test

A

Test designed to assess what a person has learned

423
Q

Wechsler adult intelligence scale (WAIS)

A

The most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests

424
Q

Standardization

A

Defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested “standardization group”

425
Q

Normal curve

A

Symmetrical bell shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near average and fewer and fewer scores lie near extremes

426
Q

Reliability

A

Extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on 2 halves of the test, on alternate forms the test, or on retesting

427
Q

Validity

A

Extent to which a test measures or predicts what it’s supposed to

428
Q

Content validity

A

Extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest

429
Q

Criterion

A

Behavior that a test is designed to predict; thus, the measure used in defining whether the test has predictive validity

430
Q

Predictive validity

A

Success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it’s assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior

431
Q

Mental retardation

A

Condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an IQ below 70 and difficulty adapting to the demand of life; varies from mild to profound

432
Q

Down syndrome

A

Condition of retardation and associated physical disorders caused by an extra chromosome in one’s genetic makeup

433
Q

Stereotype threat

A

A self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype

434
Q

Personality

A

And individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

435
Q

Free association

A

In psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing

436
Q

Psychoanalysis

A

Freud’s theory of personality that attributes our thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions

437
Q

Unconscious

A

According to Freud, the reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware

438
Q

Id

A

Contains a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. It operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification

439
Q

Ego

A

The largely conscious executive part of personality that according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle satisfying the id’s desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain

440
Q

Superego

A

The part of personality that according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment and for future aspirations, begins to develop around age 4 or 5

441
Q

Psychosexual stages

A

The childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id’s pleasure seeking energies focused on distinct a erogenous zones

442
Q

Oedipus complex

A

According to Freud, a boy’s sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father

443
Q

Identification

A

Process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents’ values into developing superegos

444
Q

Fixation

A

According to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, where conflicts were unresolved

445
Q

Defense mechanisms

A

In psychoanalytic theory, the ego’s protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality

446
Q

Repression

A

In psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness

447
Q

Regression

A

Defense mechanism in which an individual faced with anxiety retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated

448
Q

Reaction formation

A

Psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which the ego unconsciously switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites

449
Q

Projection

A

Psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others

450
Q

Rationalization

A

Defense mechanism that offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one’s actions

451
Q

Displacement

A

Psychoanalytic defense mechanism that shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person

452
Q

Projective tests

A

Personality test, such as the Rorschach or TAT, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one’s inner dynamics

453
Q

Thematic apperception test (TAT)

A

Projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories that they make up about ambiguous scenes

454
Q

Rorschach inkblot test

A

Most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots

455
Q

Collective unconscious

A

Carl Jung’s concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species’ history

456
Q

Self-actualization

A

According to Maslow, the ultimate psychological need that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one’s potential

457
Q

Unconditional positive regard

A

According to Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward another person

458
Q

Self-concept

A

All our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, “who am I?”

459
Q

Traits

A

Characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports

460
Q

Personality inventory

A

A questionnaire (often with true – false or agree – disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits

461
Q

Minnesota multiphasic personality inventory (MMPI)

A

The most widely researched and clinically used of all personality test. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders, this test is now used for many other screening purposes

462
Q

Empirically derived test

A

Test (such as the MMPI) developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups

463
Q

Social – cognitive perspective

A

Views behavior as influenced by the interaction between persons (and they’re thinking) and their social context

464
Q

Reciprocal determinism

A

Interacting influences between personality and environmental factors

465
Q

Personal control

A

Our sense of controlling our environment rather than feeling helpless

466
Q

External locus of control

A

Perception that chance or outside forces beyond one’s personal control determine one’s fate

467
Q

Internal locus of control

A

Perception that one controls one’s own fate

468
Q

Learned helplessness

A

Hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

469
Q

Positive psychology

A

Scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive

470
Q

Spotlight effect

A

Overestimating others noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders

471
Q

Self-esteem

A

One’s feelings of high or low self-worth

472
Q

Self-serving bias

A

A readiness to perceive oneself favorably

473
Q

Individualism

A

Giving priority to one’s own goals over group goals, and defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications

474
Q

Collectivism

A

Giving priority to the goals of one’s group (often one’s extended family or work group) and defining one’s identity accordingly

475
Q

Terror – management theory

A

Propose that faith in one’s worldview and the pursuit of self-esteem provide protection against a deeply rooted fear of death

476
Q

Psychological disorders

A

A “harmful dysfunction” in which behavior is judged to be atypical, disturbing, maladaptive, and unjustifiable

477
Q

Medical model

A

Concept that diseases have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and in most cases, cured. When applied to psychological disorders, the medical model assumes that these “mental “illnesses can be diagnosed on the basis of their symptoms and cured through therapy, may include treatment in a psychiatric hospital

478
Q

Bio – psycho – social perspective

A

Contemporary perspective which assumes that biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors combined and interact to produce psychological disorders

479
Q

DSM – IV

A

The American psychiatric Association’s diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th edition), a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders

480
Q

Neurotic disorders

A

Psychological disorder that is usually distressing but that allows one to think rationally and function socially

481
Q

Psychotic disorders

A

Psychological disorder in which a person loses contact with reality, experiencing irrational ideas and distorted perceptions

482
Q

Anxiety disorders

A

Psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety

483
Q

Generalized anxiety disorder

A

Anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in the state of autonomic nervous system arousal

484
Q

Panic disorder

A

Anxiety disorder marked by a minutes-long episode of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations

485
Q

Phobia

A

An anxiety disorder marked by a persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific object or situation

486
Q

Obsessive – compulsive disorder

A

Anxiety disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and or actions (compulsions)

487
Q

Mood disorder

A

Psychological disorders characterized by emotional extremes

488
Q

Major depressive disorder

A

Mood disorder where, for no apparent reason, experiences two or more weeks of depressed moods, feeling of worthlessness, and diminished interest or pleasure in most activities

489
Q

Manic episode

A

Mood disorder marked by a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state

490
Q

Bipolar disorder

A

Mood disorder where the person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the over excited state of mania

491
Q

Dissociative disorders

A

Disorders where conscious awareness becomes separated from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings

492
Q

Dissociative identity disorder

A

Rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities

493
Q

Personality disorder

A

Psychological disorder characterized by inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning

494
Q

Antisocial personality disorder

A

Personality disorder in which the person (usually a man) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends and family members. May be aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist

495
Q

Schizophrenia

A

Group of severe disorders characterized by disorganized and delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate emotions and actions

496
Q

Delusions

A

False beliefs, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany psychotic disorders

497
Q

Psychotherapy

A

Emotionally charged, confiding interaction between a trained therapist and someone who suffers from psychological difficulties

498
Q

Eclectic approach

A

Approach to psychotherapy that, depending on the client’s problems, uses techniques from various forms of therapy

499
Q

Psychoanalysis

A

Sigmund Freud’s therapeutic technique. Freud believed that patients’ free associations, resistances, dreams, and transferences – and therapist’s interpretations of them – released previously repressed feelings, allowing the patient to gain self insight

500
Q

Resistance

A

In psychoanalysis, the blocking from consciousness of anxiety-laden material

501
Q

Interpretations

A

In psychoanalysis, the analyst’s noting supposed dream meanings, resistances, and other significant behaviors in order to promote insight

502
Q

Transference

A

In psychoanalysis, the patient’s transfer to the analyst of emotions linked with other relationships

503
Q

Client-centered therapy

A

Humanistic therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, in which the therapist uses techniques such as active listening within a genuine, accepting, empathic environment to facilitate clients’ growth

504
Q

Active listening

A

Empathic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and clarifies. A feature of Rogers’ client-centered therapy

505
Q

Behavior therapy

A

Therapy that applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviors

506
Q

Counterconditioning

A

Behavior therapy procedure that conditions new responses to stimuli that trigger unwanted behaviors; based on classical conditioning

507
Q

Exposure therapies

A

Behavioral techniques, such as systematic desensitization, that treat anxieties by exposing people to things they fear and avoid

508
Q

Systematic desensitization

A

Type of counterconditioning that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety – triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias

509
Q

Aversive conditioning

A

Type of counterconditioning that associates and unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as drinking alcohol)

510
Q

Token economy

A

Operant conditioning procedure that rewards desired behavior. A patient exchanges the token of some sort, for exhibiting the desired behavior, for various privileges or treats

511
Q

Cognitive therapy

A

Therapy that teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking and acting; based on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions

512
Q

Cognitive – behavior therapy

A

Popular integrated therapy that combines cognitive therapy (changing self-defeating thinking) with behavior therapy (changing behavior)

513
Q

Family therapy

A

Therapy that treats the family as a system. Views and individual’s unwanted behaviors as influenced by or directed at other family members; times to guide family members toward positive relationships and improved communication

514
Q

Meta-analysis

A

Procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies

515
Q

Regression toward the mean

A

Tendency for extremes of unusual scores to fall back toward their average

516
Q

Psychopharmacology

A

Study of the effects of drugs on mind and behavior

517
Q

Lithium

A

Chemical that provides an effective drug therapy for the mood swings of bipolar disorders

518
Q

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

A

Biomedical therapy for severely depressed patients in which a brief electric current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized patient

519
Q

Psychosurgery

A

Surgery that removes or destroys brain tissue in an effort to change behavior

520
Q

Lobotomy

A

Now – rare psychosurgical procedure once used to calm uncontrollably emotional or violent patients. The procedure cut the nerves that connect the frontal lobe to the emotion – controlling centers of the inner brain

521
Q

Social psychologists

A

Study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

522
Q

Attribution theory

A

Theory that we tend to give a causal exclamation for someone’s behavior, often by crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition

523
Q

Fundamental attribution error

A

Tendency for observers, when analyzing another’s behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

524
Q

Attitude

A

A belief and feeling that predisposes one to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events

525
Q

Foot – in – the – door phenomenon

A

Tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

526
Q

Cognitive dissonance theory

A

Theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent

527
Q

Conformity

A

Adjusting one’s behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard

528
Q

Normative social influence

A

Influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

529
Q

Informational social influence

A

Influence resulting from one’s willingness to except others’ opinions about reality

530
Q

Social facilitation

A

Improve performance of tasks in the presence of others; occurs with simple or well-learned tasks but not with tasks that are difficult or not yet mastered

531
Q

Social loafing

A

Tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

532
Q

Deindividuation

A

Loss of self-awareness and self restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

533
Q

Group polarization

A

Enhancement of a group’s prevailing attitude through discussion within the group

534
Q

Groupthink

A

Mode of thinking that occurs when desire for harmony and decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

535
Q

Prejudice

A

An unjustifiable attitude toward a group and its members. It generally involves stereotype beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action

536
Q

Stereotype

A

A generalized belief about a group of people

537
Q

Ingroup

A

“Us “– people with whom one shares a common identity

538
Q

Outgroup

A

“Them”– those perceived as different or apart from one’s ingroup

539
Q

Ingroup bias

A

Tendency to favor one’s own group

540
Q

Scapegoat theory

A

Theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame

541
Q

Just – world phenomenon

A

Tendency of people to believe the world is just and that people get what they deserve and deserve what they get

542
Q

Aggression

A

Any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy

543
Q

Frustration – aggression principle

A

Principle that frustration – the blocking of an attempt to achieve sone goal- creates anger, which can generate aggression

544
Q

Conflict

A

Perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas

545
Q

Social trap

A

Situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior

546
Q

Mere exposure effect

A

Phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking them

547
Q

Passionate love

A

Aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship

548
Q

Companionate love

A

Deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined

549
Q

Equity

A

Condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it

550
Q

Self-disclosure

A

Revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others

551
Q

Altruism

A

Unselfish regard for the welfare of others

552
Q

Bystander effect

A

A tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

553
Q

Social exchange theory

A

Theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs

554
Q

Superordinate goals

A

Shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation

555
Q

GRIT

A

Graduated and reciprocated initiatives and tension – reduction – a strategy designed to decrease international tensions

AP Psych (1 decks)

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