AP Psych Vocab Flashcards
1
Q
Psychology
A
The study of the soul or mind
2
Q
Structuralism
A
Structure is more important than function
3
Q
Functionalism
A
Function is more important than structure
4
Q
Wilhelm Wundt
A
Father of psychology as a science, founded the first psychology lab
5
Q
Edward Titchner
A
Founded structuralism
6
Q
Introspection
A
Asking someone to observe themselves thinking
7
Q
William James
A
Wrote the first psychology textbook, created functionalism
8
Q
Psychodynamic Approach
A
One of the oldest approaches, hypnosis, dream analysis, therapy, study of the unconscious. Strength: Flexible and can’t be disproven, weakness: not scientific, hard to study
9
Q
Psychoanalytic Approach
A
Founded by Freud, eventually became psychodynamic
10
Q
Behavioralist Approach
A
Reflexes and behavior, Ivan Pavlov, BF Skinner, strength: scientifically observable, weakness: doesn’t account for creativity, selflessness, and love
11
Q
Cognitive Approach
A
Thoughts, strength: flexible, accounts for differences, helps with treatment, weakness: difficult to study scientifically
12
Q
Biological Approach
A
The mind is what the brain does, strength: scientific, easy to study, weakness: too simplistic
13
Q
Humanistic Approach
A
Optimistic, how people are unique, rejection of psychodynamic/behavioral, focuses on free will, strength: positive, encourages differences, fosters growth, weakness: not scientific, hard to study
14
Q
Sociocultural Approach
A
Religion, family, culture, society, strength: somewhat measurable, works for talking about average behavior, weakness: hard to apply to individuals, leads to stereotypes, hard to measure
15
Q
Surveys
A
Questionnaires that gather data about people, gathers large amounts of data quickly, easily processed, allows for anonymity, participants can lie or misunderstand. Correlational Study
16
Q
Wording Effect
A
Questions can be written in ways that affect responses
17
Q
Case Study
A
Lots of data about a specific individual or group, gives a full picture, chronological data, time consuming, might not be generalizable. Correlational
18
Q
Naturalistic Observation
A
Observing people in their own habitats. Authentic data, ethics of informed consent, lack of control. Correlational
19
Q
Cross Sectional
A
Compares different groups at one point in time
20
Q
Longitudinal
A
Follows a group over time
21
Q
How can you find a causal relationship?
A
Experiments
22
Q
Independent Variable
A
Causes change in the dependent variable
23
Q
Hypothesis
A
Prediction, if/then statement
24
Q
Placebo Effect
A
Results occur due to belief, not independent variable
25
Experimental Group
Gets the independent variable
26
Control Group
Gets a placebo
27
Confounding Variable
Variables other than the independent that affect the dependent
28
Random Sample
Everyone in a population has an equal chance to be chosen
29
Representative Sample
Group being studied “looks like” general population
30
Random Assignment
Equal chance of being in experimental or control group
31
Participant/Subject Bias
Behaving in a way to ensure research outcome fits expectations (theirs or the researchers)
32
Single Blind Procedure
Participants don’t know what group they’re in, avoids subject bias
33
Experimenter Bias
Conducting research to ensure outcome fits expectations
34
Double Blind Study
Neither participants nor experimenters know what group is which
35
Hawthorne Effect
Change in behavior due to observation, based on the Hawthorne Plant Study
36
Quantitative Data
Numbers
37
Qualitative Data
Places results into categories
38
Descriptive Statistics
Organizing and describing data
39
Inferential Statistics
Generalizing data to the larger population
40
Frequency Distribution Table
Determines how often data occurs
41
Discrete Data
Data which can be counted
42
Nominal Scale
Data without any structure or order (ex: tall to short)
43
Ordinal Scale
Count and order but not measure (ex: like or dislike)
44
Continuous Data
Data which can be measured
45
Interval Scale
Degrees of difference but not the ratio between them
46
Ratio Scale
Measures a meaningful measurement with a zero value
47
Dichotomy Scale
Two categories
48
Trichotomy Scale
3+ categories
49
Displaying Methods
Pie chart, bar graph, histogram, frequency polygon
50
Central Tendency
Mode (most frequent), mean (average), median (middle)
51
Range
The difference between the highest and the lowest points
52
Standard Deviation
Average distance from the mean, high SD means less similar
53
Normal Distribution
Bell curve, mode/median/mean all meet at 0, produced when a large group is tested
54
Positive Skew
Mean pulled towards higher end of the score
55
Negative Skew
Mean pulled towards lower end of the score
56
Correlation Coefficient
The strength of a relationship between two variables. The closer it is to one, the stronger the relationship
57
Positive Correlation Coefficient
0 to +1, both variables move together
58
Negative Correlation Coefficient
0 to -1, one variable increases while the other decreases
59
No Correlation
No relationship between variables
60
Statistical Significance
The likelihood that data collection is a result of the experiment
61
P Value
If close to 0, data supports hypothesis
62
Ethics
Beneficence and Non-Malfience (do no harm), Fidelity and Responsibility (atmosphere built on trust, responsibility, and ethical consideration), Integrity (transparent practices), Justice (aware of biases, competence), Respect for Rights and Dignity
63
Evolutionary Approach
Inspired by Darwin’s theory of evolution, certain characteristics help the population to thrive
64
Major Debates in Psychology
Nature vs Nurture
Free Will vs Determinism
65
Reciprocal Determinism
Genetics are not destiny, environment affects people who affect the environment
66
Epigenetics
Environmental pressures can change the activity of genes
67
Polygenic
Trait caused by genes is caused by many genes
68
Diathesis
Disorders are both environmental and genetic
69
Maturationism
All children follow the same genetic pattern, but their environment determines what they do
70
Plasticity
The brain cellularly changes in response to the environment
71
Endocrine System
Allows for communication
72
Glands
Use hormones to “talk” via the bloodstream
73
Pituitary Gland
Controlled by the hypothalamus, regulates all other glands
74
Adrenal Gland
Releases adrenaline
75
Pineal Gland
Produces melatonin
76
Thyroid
Regulates metabolism
77
Pancreas
Produces insulin, helps get energy from food
78
Ovary/Testes
Produce estrogen/progesterone/testosterone
79
Oxytocin
“Us vs them”, “love hormone”, increases contractions during childbirth
80
Cortisol
Stress hormone
81
Testosterone
Sexual desire, competition
82
Estrogen
Sexual desire, reproduction
83
Leptin
Turns off hunger when full
84
Ghrelin
Turns on hunger when hungry
85
Melatonin
Sleep process
86
Central Nervous System
Brain and spinal cord. Organizes movement, creates thoughts, forms emotions, produces behavior
87
Spinal Cord
Transmits messages from the brain to the muscles to the glands throughout the body
88
Spinal Reflex
A simple, automatic response
89
Peripheral Nervous System
A bundle of nerves that transmits information from the CNS to the body and back, carries out orders from CNS
90
Somatic Nervous System
Part of peripheral, sensory, voluntary movement, touch, pain, temperature
91
Autonomic Nervous System
Part of peripheral, involuntary, breathing, digestion, heart rate
92
Parasympathetic/Sympathetic Nervous System
Part of autonomic, parasympathetic slows you down, sympathetic used for emergencies, work together
93
Neurons
Make up the nervous system
94
Glial Cells
Provide nutrients and protect neurons, ex: Schwann cell
95
Dendrites
Receive information from other neurons
96
Soma
“Cell body” of the neuron
97
Axon
Carries info away from cell body, spinal cord is the longest axon
98
Myelin Sheath
Insulating covering for the axon
99
Nodes of Ranvier
Gaps between myelin sheath, promote action potential
100
Axon Terminal
Houses neurotransmitters
101
Synapse
The space between axon terminals and adjacent dendrites
102
Sensory Neurons
Afferent, receives info from sensory receptors and sends it to the brain
103
Motor Neurons
Carry info from the brain to the body, efferent
104
Mirror Neurons
Activated when we watch others complete an action (ex: yawning)
105
Neural Transmission
Neurons sending messages between adjacent neurons
106
Resting Potential
More positive ions on the outside of the neuron than the inside
107
Permeability
A process where the positive and negative ions come together
108
Action Potential
Neuron fires an impulse because positive ions sweep down the neuron, firing threshold
109
“All or None” Response
When an impulse reaches its intensity level, it will fire
110
Refractory Period
The neuron cannot immediately fire again
111
Reuptake
Any excess neurotransmitters are recollected after firing
112
Resting Period
Neuron not firing
113
Neurotransmitters
Communicate between neurons to perform tasks
114
Excitatory
Stimulates firing to send message
115
Inhibitory
Slows firing to slow message
116
Acetylcholine
Enables muscle action, learning, and memory. Low: Alzheimer’s
117
Dopamine
Movement, learning, attention, emotion. High: Schizophrenia, Low: Tremors, low mobility, Parkinson’s
118
Serotonin
Hunger, mood, arousal, sleep. Low: Depression
119
Endorphins
Pain control and pleasure during great stress. Low: OCD
120
Epinephrine
Same as adrenaline (energy, sympathetic system, helps with stress), forms memories
121
Norepinephrine
Sympathetic system, alertness, blood pressure, heart rate, releases glucose, fight or flight
122
Glutamate
Excitatory, memory. High: migraines, seizures
123
GABA
Inhibitory. Low: seizures, tremors, insomnia
124
Synaptic Vesicles
Release neurotransmitters from axon terminal
125
Receptor Site
Where neurotransmitters bind
126
Agonists
Mimics a neurotransmitter, enhances the effects/produces more
127
Antagonists
Blocks neurotransmitter, produces less or no effect
128
Inhibitors
Affect reuptake, produce more of the neurotransmitter the next time the neuron fires
129
Dopamine Agonists
Mimic dopamine, often for those with Parkinson’s
130
Drugs as Agonists/Antagonists
Opiates- Agonist for endorphins
Botox- Antagonist for acetylcholine
Alcohol- Antagonist for glutamate
131
Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors
AKA SSRI, stop the reuptake of serotonin
132
Hindbrain
Most primitive, base of the brain
133
Midbrain
More complex, buried under forebrain
134
Forebrain
Most complex, higher level thinking, outer layer
135
Pons
Hindbrain, regulates sleep cycle, communicates between cerebellum and forebrain, autonomic (bladder)
136
Medulla Oblongata
Hindbrain, autonomic (reflexes, blood pressure)
137
Cerebellum
Hindbrain, “little brain”, balance, posture, coordination, implicit memory formation
138
Reticular Formation
Hindbrain, attention, arousal, consciousness, sleep cycles
139
Limbic System
Midbrain, center of emotion
140
Thalamus
Midbrain, sensory and motor relay
141
Hypothalamus
Midbrain, homeostasis, hormones
142
Amygdala
Midbrain, emotional reactions
143
Hippocampus
Midbrain, memory formation, learning, emotional regulation
144
Frontal Lobe
Forebrain, prefrontal, motor cortex, association areas, Broca’s Area
145
Parietal Lobe
Somatosensory cortex, association areas, forebrain
146
Occipital Lobe
Primary visual cortex, association areas, forebrain
147
Temporal Lobe
Auditory cortex, association areas, Wernicke’s Area, forebrain
148
Broca’s Area
Speech production
149
Prefrontal Cortex
Last part of brain to develop, higher level thinking
150
Wernicke’s Area
Interprets auditory code
151
HM (Henry Moliason)
Hippocampus removed due to seizures, lost ability to form new memories
152
Wilder Penfield and Brenda Milner
Discovered the function of the hippocampus from HM
153
Louis Victor Geborne
Could only say the word “tan” after a stroke but could still use inflection
154
Pierre Paul Broca
Studied Geborne, named the speech production center after himself
155
Broca’s Aphasia
The inability to produce speech and select words
156
Phineas Gage
Had an iron bar driven into his skull but didn’t pass out or die, prefrontal cortex damaged, lost judgement, emotional regulation, and planning
157
Split Brain Patient
Brain hemispheres do not connect, can describe something they saw in their right visual field and draw what they saw in their left
158
Left Hemisphere
Language, logic
159
Right Hemisphere
Visual, spatial recognition, faces
160
Neuroimaging
Now used to study the brain
161
Electroencephalogram/EEG
Electrodes placed on head detect electrical activity when neurons fire
162
Position Emission Topography/PET
Subject is injected with radioactive glucose which neurons consume as they fire, can detect “hot spots” of firing neurons in scan and map activity
163
Magnetic Resonance Imaging/MRI
MRI machine contains magnetic field that distorts atoms and allows for clear photography, gives info about anatomy
164
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging/fMRI
Process similar to MRI, measures oxygen from blood flow, gives info about anatomy and activity
165
Psychoactive Drug
A chemical substance used purposefully to alter mood or perception
166
Depressants
Reduce neural activity, slow body functions, ex: sleeping pills, tranquilizers, alcohol, opioids
167
Opioids
Depressant effect, pain relief, ex: morphine, oxycodone, heroin, codeine
168
Stimulants
Excite neural activity, speed up body functions, ex: caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, cocaine
169
Hallucinogens
Distort perceptions, evoke hallucinations, ex: LSD, marijuana
170
NREM 1
5-10 mins, light sleep, alpha waves
171
NREM 2
Transitional, 10-20 mins, harder to awaken, theta waves, spindles, k complexes
172
NREM 3
Gets shorter through the night, deepest stage, growth/body sleep, delta waves
173
REM
Gets longer through the night, internally active, dreams, externally paralyzed (“paradoxical sleep”), beta waves
174
Restoration Theory
Sleep is necessary to restore resources and reenergize body
175
Adaptive Theory
Sleep protects us, evolved to preserve energy (evolutionary)
176
Cognitive and Information Processing Theory
Sleep helps us remember, sleep deprivation affects cognitive performance
177
Psychological Theory
Freud’s interpretation of dreams, dreams are our unconscious mind
178
Manifest Content
The storyline of a dream that we remember
179
Latent Content
The hidden, symbolic meaning behind a dream
180
Biological and Information Processing Theory
Dreams help consolidate memory
181
Activation Synthesis Model
REM triggers neural activity in the cortex as memories are synthesized, helps preserve and develop neural connections
182
Insomnia
The inability to fall asleep/stay asleep, most common, caused by stress, irregular sleep schedule, pain, illness, medications, diet
183
Sleep Apnea
The cessation of breathing while sleeping
Types: Obstructive, central (CNS), complex
Risk factors: Weight, smoking, sex, age, body, nasal obstruction
184
Narcolepsy
Falling into uncontrollable sleep throughout the day, genetic, treated with medication
185
Gestalt Psychology
Origin of cognitive psychology, whole is greater than the sum of its parts
186
Law of Simplicity
Objects appear to us as simply as possible
187
Gestalt Principles
Organization of visual field into objects that stand out
Proximity, similarity, continuity, connectedness, closure
188
Depth Perception
The ability to perceive distance of objects
189
Binocular Cues
Require two eyes, convergence, retinal disparity
190
Monocular Cues
Require one eye, relative size, interposition, light, shadow, relative height, texture gradient, perspective
191
Convergence
Neuromuscular, eyes move inward for close objects and straight for far objects
192
Retinal Disparity
The closer the object, the larger the differences between what each eye sees
193
Sensory Transduction
Stimulus activates sense receptors, which create a sensation
194
Absolute Threshold
Smallest amount of energy that produces a sensation 50% of the time
195
Difference Threshold
The smallest change in stimulus that causes a change in sensation
196
Just Noticeable Difference
The smallest difference needed for a difference to be detected 50% of the time
197
Weber’s Law
The ratio of actual change in stimulus to perceived change
198
Signal Detection Theory
The intensity of the stimuli and the psychological state of the person affect the ability to detect the stimuli
199
Bottom Up Processing
Sensing the stimulus and then perceiving and processing the experience
200
Top Down Processing
Perceiving the experience first based on expectations, experience, culture, motivation, emotions, etc, and then sensing the stimulus
201
Perceptual Set
Our tendency to perceive some parts of sensory data and ignore others
202
Schemas
Mental frameworks for organizing our understanding of the world
203
Cornea
Allows light to hit the retina
204
Iris
Contracts the pupil
205
Pupil
Changes size according to available light
206
Retina
Contains vision receptors, which form the optic nerve
207
Forea
Focuses the eye
208
Rods and Cones
In the back of the retina, allows for color vision
209
Blind Spot
No rods or cones
210
Feature Detectors
Light, color, line, shape, angle, motion
211
Light Waves
Stimuli for receptor cells in the retina
212
Wavelength
Determines hue, short is cool, long is warm
213
Amplitude
Determines intensity, height of wave
214
Trichromatic Theory
Combinations of cones firing makes up colors, cones work in threes (red, green, blue), strength of signal determines how the brain interprets, light hitting the retina stimulates cones
215
Opponent Process Theory
Visual information affects neurons, some inhibited and some excited, explains afterimages
216
Two Stage Theory
Trichromatic and opponent process theories work together to explain color vision
217
Color Blindness
People who either cannot distinguish excitatory and inhibitory signals or have unresponsive cones
218
Monochromat
Black/white/gray color blind
219
Dichromat
Red/green or yellow/blue color blind
220
Trichromat
Completely color blind
221
Physical Illusions
Distortion of scale based on manipulation of monocular cues for depth perception
222
Physiological Illusions
Overstimulation of visual system (photoreceptors, feature detectors)
223
Cognitive Illusions
Mismatch between perception and sensing (top down, perceptual set, context clues, manipulation of Gestalt principles)
224
Frequency
How rapidly a sound wave cycles (amplitude affects volume, frequency affects pitch)
225
Outer Ear
Gather, concentrate, and amplify sound waves (air as medium)
226
Pinna
Gathers and compresses waves
227
Ear Canal
Entryway for sound waves
228
Tympanic Membrane
Transfers to middle ear
229
Middle Ear
Solid as medium, three tiny bones
230
Inner Ear
Liquid as medium
231
Cochlea
Liquid, produces nerve impulses in response to vibrations
232
Cilia
Hair cells on cochlea
233
Transduction
Converting information from the environment through sensation into ideas through perception
234
Sensorineural Hearing Loss
Impacts loudness, clarity, and range of sounds heard, affects cilia and auditory nerve, both ears, more common, aging, trauma, disease
235
Conductive Hearing Loss
Sound waves cannot progress normally through outer/middle ear, affects outer ear, ear drum, and middle ear, one or both ears, blockage, trauma, can be selective
236
Gustatory Sense
Taste
237
Olfactory Sense
Smell
238
Tastes
Bitter, salty, sweet, sour, umami
239
Body Senses
Touch, pain, vestibular (balance, movement), kinesthetic (position/movement of skeletal joints)
240
Learning
Change in behavior, results from experience, relatively permanent
241
Albert Bandura
Observational learning, Bobo doll
242
Ivan Pavlov
Classical conditioning, Pavlov’s dogs
243
John B Watson
Helped found behaviorism
244
Robert Rescorla
Contingency and stimulus satience
245
Edward Tolman
Latent learning
246
John Garcia
Taste aversion
247
Insight Learning
Sudden realization of the solution
248
Emotional Learning
Helps people understand their emotions
249
Learned Helplessness
Believing you are unable to change a situation, which prevents you from trying
250
Classical Conditioning
-Unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response
-Conditioned stimulus paired with unconditioned stimulus
-Conditioned response is elicited
251
Extinction
Conditioned and unconditioned stimulus are no longer paired
252
Spontaneous Recovery
Extinguished response returns
253
Stimulus Discrimination
Responses differ with different stimuli, opposite of generalization
254
Higher Order Learning
Associating one conditioned stimulus with another
255
Operant Conditioning
Learning based on consequences
256
EL Thorndike
Cat in box experiments, learning requires trial and error, positive reinforcer given to the cat who manages to escape the box by pushing a latch
257
Law of Effect
Behavior+satisfying effect = reward
258
BF Skinner
Behaviorist, expanded on Thorndike’s Law of Effect, schedules of reinforcement, Skinner box used to measure behavior
259
Positive Reinforcement
Adding in a stimulus to increase behavior
260
Positive Punishment
Adding in a stimulus to decrease behavior
261
Negative Reinforcement
Removing a stimulus to increase behavior
262
Negative Punishment
Taking away a stimulus to decrease behavior
263
Intrinsic Motivation
Desire to perform a behavior for its own sake
264
Extrinsic Motivation
Desire to perform a behavior for rewards or less punishment
265
Overjustification
Extrinsic rewards replace intrinsic motivation
266
Fixed Interval
Same spacing at the same interval of time
267
Fixed Ratio
Same spacing over different periods of time
268
Variable Interval
Varied spacing, same length of time
269
Variable Ratio
Varied spacing and number
270
Stressors
Things in the environment that cause a biological response
271
Emotion Focused Coping
Attempts to avoid stressor, attends to emotional needs
272
Problem Focused Coping
Greater stress reduction, feeling more in control
273
Self Control
Ability to delay gratification and control impulses, depleted through use of
274
External Locus of Control
Relying on outside factors
275
Internal Locus of Control
Deciding our own fate
276
Biofeedback
Uses cognitive factors to influence psychological factors of stress, feedback about subtle body responses
277
Memory
Learning that persists over time
278
Multistore Model of Memory
Information moves through multiple stores
279
3 Stage Model
Sensory memory, short term, long term
280
Short Term Memory
Shelf, used temporarily
281
Working Memory
Processing information actively
282
Information Processing Model
Our brain receives data and processes it, either using it or storing it
283
Sensory Memory
Reacts to stimuli
284
Iconic Memory
Images, less than one second
285
Echoic Memory
1-3 seconds, sounds
286
Maintenance Rehearsal
The repetition of information to keep it in working memory
287
Encoding
Turning short term memories into long term memories (visual, acoustic, semantic/meaning)
288
Retrieval
Pulling memories out of long term and into short term
289
Shallow Processing
Little elaboration, focus on superficial elements
290
Deep Processing
Focus on meaning with deeper elaboration, better retention
291
Massed Practice
Trying to encode all at once
292
Distributed Practice
Encoding over multiple time periods
293
Spacing Effect
Distributed practice leads to long term retention
294
Testing Effect
Retrieving info for tests is better than just rereading
295
Serial Position Effect
Middle items are the least remembered
296
Recency Effect
The last items in a list are remembered best
297
Primacy Effect
The first items in a list are remembered best in the long term
298
Chunking
Clustering items into meaningful units
299
Mnemonics
Memory devices
300
Hierarchies
Creating categories with subdivisions
301
Serial Processing
Only one process occurs at any given time, one after the other
302
Parallel Processing
Multiple tracks of brain processes occurring at once, not the same as multitasking
303
Effortful Processing
Explicit memories (facts, experiences), information processing
304
Automatic Processing
Implicit memories encoded unconsciously (procedural memory, classical conditioning)
305
Recognition
Identifying previous learning, stable, easier
306
Recall
Retrieving previous learning, declines with age
307
Relearning
Improved retrieval with repeated learning
308
Overlearning
Practicing after learning a skill to make it more resilient to forgetting
309
Retrieval Cues
Connection points to access a memory
310
Priming
Activation of memory associations, sometimes unconsciously
311
Context Dependent Memory
Revisiting the location of an experience serves as a cue
312
State Dependent Memory
What we experience in one state could be remembered better in that state
313
Mood Congruent Memory
Emotion serves as a cue
314
Causes of Forgetting
Encoding, storage decay, retrieval failure
315
Retrieval Failure
Stored information that is not accessible
316
Prospective Memory
Memory to do something in the future
317
Retrospective Memory
Memory of previous info
318
Interference
Some information blocks the recall of other info
319
Proactive Interference
Forward acting, prior information disrupts learning new information
320
Retroactive Interference
Backward acting, new learning disrupts recalling old info
321
Amnesia
Temporary or permanent loss of memory
322
Retrograde Amnesia
Inability to remember past info, procedures intact
323
Anterograde Amnesia
Inability to form new memories
324
Source Amnesia
Attributing an experience to the wrong source
325
Long Term Potentiation
Increased efficiency in the synapse when repeatedly stimulated
326
Flashbulb Memory
Not immune to alteration, usually very personal, can be shared
327
Concept
A cluster of raw cognitive material, finds something to attach to or forgotten
328
Prototype
An abstract, imperfect example
329
Exemplar
An example from limited experience
330
Artificial Concept
A perfect example, rare
331
Informal Reasoning
Fast thinking (heuristics, top down, schema, mental set, mental model)
332
Formal Reasoning
Slow thinking (algorithm, bottom up, syllogism, diagnosis, AI), makes us more sure of our answers
333
Heuristics
Shortcuts based on experience, efficient
334
Mental Set
A way of thinking that has worked before
335
Algorithm
Step by step process
336
Syllogism
Using logic
337
Diagnosis
Eliminating all wrong answers gives you the right answer
338
Representativeness Heuristic
If something has a few characteristics of a schema, it’s in the schema
339
Availability Heuristic
Strategy easily coming to mind
340
Anchoring Bias
A powerful/emotional thought that affects the whole mind
341
Confirmation Bias
We listen only to what supports our opinions
342
Hindsight Bias
Convincing ourselves that we knew it all along
343
Fixedness
Not being able to see from another POV
344
Framing Effect
How something is presented affects our thoughts about it
345
Illusory Correlation
Assuming correlation based on circumstantial evidence
346
Functional Fixedness
Not being able to see other uses for things
347
Belief Perseverance
Holding onto wrong opinions, even knowing that they’re wrong
348
Operational Definition
Defining something so that it can be measured
349
Psychometrics
Measuring the mind (processing speed)
350
Fluid Intelligence
Related to processing speed
351
Crystallized Intelligence
Related to heuristics, slower as we age
352
Flynn Effect
Over time, the average IQ of a society rises
353
Savant Syndrome
A genius ability in a very narrow area
354
Stereotype Threat
Members of a group thought to be “less than” in a given area will perform worse in that area
355
Francis Galton
First one to qualify intelligence, correlated it with reaction times, supported eugenics
356
Alfred Binet
Invented the first IQ test
357
Mental Age
At what level a child is operating
358
Chronological Age
Actual age
359
IQ
(Mental Age/Chronological Age) x 100
100 is average
360
Lewis Terman
Reconfigured Binet test for US population (Stanford-Binet), supported eugenics and used IQ tests to justify beliefs
361
David Wechsler
Valued nonverbal performance, WAI (adults) and WISC (children)
362
Howard Gardner’s Types of Intelligence
Linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal (mental health), interpersonal (other people), naturalist
363
Charles Spearman
Believed in one general intelligence (g) and other abilities (s)
364
Factor Analysis
Factors that are similar can be grouped together
365
Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
Applied in environment, sub-types: practical, experiential, analytical (realistic, creative, academic)
366
Standardization
The process of making a test uniform
367
Reliability
The consistency of the findings or results of a study
368
Validity
The test measuring what it is designed to measure
369
Split in Half Method
Helps ensure testing correlation (if someone does better on one half than the other, correlation is lower)
370
Content Validity
How well a test measures all aspects of what it’s testing
371
Construct Validity
How well a test measures accurately what it’s supposed to
372
Criterion Validity
Correlates to outside measure, how well the test can predict future results
373
Predictive Validity
A large group’s future performance on a test
374
Secondary Language Acquisition
Purposeful activity to learn a second language
375
Primary Language Acquisition
Unconscious, complex neural process
376
Language Acquisition Device
Humans will always learn language
377
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
The language one speaks influences the way they think
378
Linguistic Determinism
The language we are born into shapes our thoughts
379
Linguistic Relativity
Thoughts can be altered if a person thinks in a second language
380
Stages of Language Acquisition
1. Eye contact
2. Babbling
3. Holophase
4. Telegraphic Speech
5. Fast Mapping
6. Overgeneralization
7. Critical Period
8. Sensitive Period
381
Holophrase
One word conveying a complete thought
382
Telegraphic Speech
Two word phrases
383
Fast Mapping
Using context
384
Overgeneralization
Misapplying grammar rules
385
Stages of Prenatal Development
Germinal, Embryonic, Fetal
386
Germinal Stage
Zygote undergoes rapid cell division, sex determined by father, least vulnerable to environment
387
Phenylketonuria
Inability to produce enzymes to digest proteins, inherited, autosomal recessive
388
Down Syndrome
Caused by gene copying error, delays in physical growth, intellectual disability
389
Placenta
Provides nourishment and oxygen to embryo, affected by what the mother consumes
390
Effects of Alcohol on Fetus
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, susceptibility to alcohol abuse
391
Effects of Tobacco on Fetus
Cleft palate, low birth weight
392
Teratogens
Things that can have a negative impact on fetus. Alcohol, tobacco, etc
393
Embryonic Stage
2 weeks to 8 weeks, organs form, heartbeat, central nervous system develops
394
Fetal Stage
9 weeks to birth, sex organs, toes, fingers, hearing, lungs, bones, muscles, brain growth
395
Trust vs Mistrust
Erikson’s stages, infancy, no trust means infant views world as dangerous
396
Autonomy vs Shame/Doubt
Erikson’s stages, early childhood, potty training, confidence vs shame
397
Initiative vs Guilt
Erikson’s stages, play age, “I do it”
398
Industry vs Inferiority
Erikson’s stages, school age, industry- hardworking, making friends, doing well in school
399
Secure Attachment Style
Distressed when mother leaves, avoids strangers when mother not present, friendly when mother present, happy, easily soothed, willing to explore but returns to mother for comfort
400
Insecure-Resistant Attachment Style
Distress when mother leaves, fear/avoidance of strangers, approaches mother but resists physical contact, less willing to explore new environment
401
Insecure-Avoidant Attachment Style
Not distressed when mother leaves, no fear of strangers, little to no interest shown to mother upon return, equally uncomfortable with mother and a stranger
402
Authoritative Parenting
Desirable, rules and responsibilities, responsive, children are capable and confident
403
Uninvolved
Rules not enforced, non-responsive, children are anxious, withdrawn, and untrusting
404
Authoritarian
Rules, inflexible, rigid standards, little autonomy, children have low self esteem and anger
405
Permissive
Rules not enforced, little boundaries, responsive, children are self involved and demanding
406
Schema Assimilation
Using schemas to interpret a stimulus (ex: calling a cat a dog because both have four legs)
407
Schema Accomodation
Altering a schema to incorporate new information (ex: being able to identify a cat after learning what a cat is)
408
Sensorimotor Stage
Piaget’s stages, birth to 2 years, object permanence
409
Preoperational Stage
Piaget’s stages, 2 to 7 years, theory of mind, symbolic thought, assembling words
410
Concrete Operational Stage
Piaget’s stages, 7 to 12 years, logic
411
Formal Operational
Piaget’s stages, 12+, abstract thought
412
Egocentrism
Inability to see another point of view
413
Theory of Mind
A sense of what others are thinking or feeling
414
Identity vs Role Confusion
Erikson’s stages, adolescence
415
Intimacy vs Isolation
Erikson’s stages, early adulthood
416
Diffusion
Inactive, identity not considered, low exploration, low commitment
417
Moratorium
Options open, low commitment, high exploration
418
Foreclosure
Low exploration, high commitment, little exploration of alternatives
419
Achievement
High exploration, high commitment
420
Adolescent Egocentrism
Imagining how others view you, leads to imaginary audience and personal fable
421
Imaginary Audience
Belief that others are watching and evaluating
422
Personal Fable
Belief that none of life’s problems affect you, leads to risk taking
423
Biopsychosocial Approach
Combination of several ideas, based on biological, social, and psychological factors
424
Generativity vs Stagnation
Erikson’s stages, middle adulthood
425
Ego Integrity vs Despair
Erikson’s stages, late adulthood
426
Preconventional Morality
Right and wrong determined by reward and punishment
Stage 1- whatever leads to punishment is wrong
Stage 2- the right way to behave is the way that is rewarded
427
Conventional Morality
Views of others matter, avoidance, seeking approval
Stage 3- Conforming to the good behaviors expected of us
Stage 4- Obedience to authority, duty
428
Postconventional Morality
Abstract, rights of others can override obedience
Stage 5- Difference between legal right and moral right
Stage 6- Takes the views of everyone affected into account
429
Demand Characteristics
Participants responding in a way they think researchers expect
430
Carol Gilligan
Said that Kohlberg’s theory of morality doesn’t apply to women and that women focus more on interpersonal relationships
431
Gender Stereotypes
Schemas developed by children about gender roles
432
Gender Schema Theory
Children form schemas for masculinity and femininity and match themselves to that role
433
Motivation
A need or desire that directs behavior towards a goal
434
Primary Needs
Innate and unlearned (hunger, thirst, warmth)
435
Secondary Needs
Psychological, approval/love/belonging
436
Drive Reduction Theory
We are motivated to engage in behaviors that reduce drives to maintain homeostasis
437
Drive
State of tension or arousal caused by needs
438
Incentive Theory
We are pulled by incentives to engage in certain behaviors
439
Incentives
Stimuli that motivate and pull us toward a behavior
440
Overjustification Effect
An expected external incentive (money, etc) decreases intrinsic motivation
441
Arousal Theory
People are motivated to take certain actions to maintain a personal optimum level of arousal
442
Yerkes-Dodson Law
Too much or too little arousal will impede performance
443
Lateral Hypothalamus
Promotes eating through the hormones orexin and ghrelin when hungry
444
Ventromedial Hypothalamus
Promotes satiety when stimulated by PYY, leptin, and insulin (raised glucose = diminished hunger)
445
Motivational Conflict
When a desire to act conflicts with another emotion or motivation
446
Approach-Approach Conflict
Win-win situation, two desirable, mutually exclusive options, low conflict, convenience
447
Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict
Two undesirable, mutually exclusive options, lesser of two evils, procrastination, high conflict
448
Approach-Avoidance Conflict
One event or goal has both desirable and undesirable consequences, avoid, major conflict
449
Double Approach-Avoidance Conflict
Two mutually exclusive options have both desirable and undesirable consequences, highest level of conflict
450
James Lange Theory
Stimulus leads to arousal, which leads to an emotional experience
451
Schachter Singer Theory
Stimulus leads to arousal, which causes cognitive appraisal and leads to emotion (some emotions seem automatic, sometimes appraisal comes first)
452
Cannon-Bard Theory
Stimulus goes to the thalamus, which causes arousal and emotion simultaneously (doesn’t account for novel situations)
453
Lazarus Theory
Stimulus leads to cognitive appraisal, which leads to both arousal and emotion
454
“High Road” to Emotion
Lazarus and Schachter-Singer, goes through cognitive appraisal in the cortex
455
Zajanc-LeDoux Theory
Stimulus leads directly to emotion (“low road”)
456
Stress
The body’s response to a disruption of homeostasis, increases chance of illness
457
Adaptation
Change in response to a stressor
458
Eustress
Beneficial stress
459
Distress
Harmful stress
460
General Adaptation Syndrome
Alarm Reaction, Resistance, Exhaustion
461
Alarm Reaction
Stressor upsets homeostasis
462
Resistance
Body adjusts to stressor
463
Exhaustion
Body can no longer resist stressor
464
Personality
The characteristic pattern of someone’s thinking, feeling, and acting
465
To what degree do differences in genes account for personality?
Roughly .5
466
Id
Primal, pleasure seeking, immediate gratification, unconscious (“devil”)
467
Superego
Conscience, restrains the id, unconscious, socialization, guilt (“angel”)
468
Ego
Conscious, listens to both id and superego, operates in reality, delayed gratification
469
Oral Stage
Birth to 18 months, oral stimulation (sucking, chewing)
470
Anal Stage
18 months to 3 years, potty training
471
Phallic Stage
3 to 6, seeking genital stimulation, beginning sexual identification by observing parents, Oedipus complex
472
Latency Stage
6 to puberty, fixations and sexual feelings are hidden
473
Genital Stage
Puberty onwards, pleasure found in sexual behavior
474
Carl Jung
Proposed the collective unconscious
475
Alfred Adler
Inferiority complex
476
Karen Horney
People are shaped by environmental and social factors as well, proposed Electra complex and womb envy
477
Neo Freudians
Adapted Freud’s theories, created the modern psychodynamic perspective
478
Defense Mechanisms
How the ego defends against the id and the superego
479
Compensation
Trying to “make up” for a perceived weakness in life
480
Displacement
Taking out your feelings on others
481
Denial
Pretending that something doesn’t exist
482
Repression
Unconsciously keeping unpleasant information from your conscious mind
483
Suppression
Consciously keeping unpleasant information from your conscious mind
484
Sublimation
Turning unacceptable impulses into acceptable behavior
485
Projection
Assigning your thoughts or emotions to others
486
Intellectualization
Thinking about stressful things in a clinical way
487
Rationalization
Justifying a behavior with logic
488
Regression
Reverting to earlier behaviors
489
Reaction Formation
Replacing an unwanted impulse with the opposite
490
Albert Bandura
Bobo Doll experiments, observational learning, imitation is not always flattery
491
Rotter’s Expectancy Theory
Behavior is governed by expectations
492
Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
Personality is learned in social situations
493
Observational Learning
Seeing something modeled and repeating it
494
Self Efficacy
Belief in your ability to be successful at a task
495
Reciprocal Determinism
Mental state, behavior, and environment affect one another
496
Self Concept
How we see ourselves and how we want to see ourselves
497
Carl Rogers
Humanist, suggested that we crave positive regard, and if it agrees with our own evaluations, we are in congruency
498
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Physiological
Safety
Belonging and Love
Self Esteem
Self Actualization
499
Trait Theory
-Personality traits are relatively stable and predictable
-Traits are stable across situations
-Everyone is different in how much of any trait they have
500
Cardinal Traits
Dominant, rare
501
Central Traits
Strong traits but not the only trait that defines someone
502
Secondary Traits
Other traits that are a part of someone’s personality
503
Raymond Cattell
Used factor analysis to find 16 personality factors
504
Hans Eysenck
Emotionality vs Stability, Extraversion vs Introversion, believed in biological causes for traits
505
Big Five Model
Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism
506
Situational Tests
Lab measurements of reactions
507
Observer Ratings
Judgment made by those close to the individual
508
Objective Personality Tests
More reliable
509
Projective Personality Tests
Psychodynamic, unconscious influences answers
510
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
Objective, uses clinical scales, can be used for diagnosis
511
Myers Briggs Test
Less reliable than the MMPI, objective
512
NEO-PI
Assesses Big Five traits, reliable, objective
513
Rorschach Test
Projective, asks what people see in various inkblots, unreliable
514
Thematic Apperception Test
Projective, people make up stories about ambiguous images, unreliable
515
Diagnostic Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
Clinical diagnosis, created for standardization, disorder must cause significant disturbance to be diagnosable
516
David Rosenhan
Falsely checked into a mental hospital, clinicians kept insinuating members of the study needed to say despite them saying they no longer had symptoms, dangers of labeling disorders
517
Neurodevelopmental Disorders
Disorders that emerge during development in adolescence
518
Autism Spectrum Disorder
Affects communication and behavior, focused interests, repetitive behavior
519
ADHD
Attention difficulties, hyperactivity, impulsivity
520
Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders
Symptoms: Delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, catatonia (abnormal motor behavior), negative symptoms
2 of 5 needed for diagnosis
521
Negative Symptoms of Schizophrenia
Reduced emotional expression, flat affect, initiative
522
Major Depressive Disorder
Most common disorder. Symptoms: Depressed mood, lack of interest in activities, weight change, affected appetite, insomnia or hypersomnia, psychomotor agitation/retardation, fatigue, feelings of worthlessness, problems with concentration, indecisiveness, frequent thoughts of death or suicide
523
Bipolar Disorder
Moving from depressive episodes to manic episodes, change is gradual
524
Anxiety
A normal reaction to stress or the unpredictable
525
Anxiety Disorders
Anxiety is consistent and interferes with someone’s life
526
Phobia
Out of proportion fear of something specific
527
Social Anxiety Disorder
Anxiety about social situations and being judged
528
Panic Disorder
Sudden and repeating panic attacks
529
Agoraphobia
Fear of public situations that cannot be escaped
530
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
Excessive worry or anxiety, often about multiple things
531
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder
Obsessions and compulsions
532
Obsessions
Persistent and troubling thoughts or urges
533
Compulsions
Actions taken to reduce the obsessive thoughts
534
Trauma and Stressor Related Disorders
In response to an overwhelmingly tragic event
535
Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
Lasts a long time, reliving the traumatic event, avoidance behaviors, cognitive/mood changes, arousal issues, treatable
536
Dissociative Disorders
Hard to diagnose, disruption or separation of self, caused by trauma
537
Dissociative Identity Disorder
Incomplete overall personality, multiple “alters”, amnesia
538
Dissociative Amnesia
Significant memory loss, long lasting
539
Depersonalization Disorder
Episodes of detachment from your body (depersonalization) or the world (derealization)
540
Somatic Symptom Disorders
The brain producing changes in the body
541
Conversion Disorder
Response is similar to a nervous system disorder (paralysis, seizures)
542
Illness Anxiety Disorder
Response is mostly cognitive, hypochondria
543
Somatic Symptom Disorder
Cognitive distress about symptoms already present, excessive concern
544
Facetious Disorder
Pretending to have symptoms for no personal gain
545
Personality Disorders
An enduring pattern of behavior that deviates from societal expectations and manifests in childhood
546
Cluster A
Schizoid- Detachment from relationships
Paranoid- Distrust and suspicion
Schizotypal- Discomfort in close relationships
547
Cluster B
Antisocial- Disregard for the rights of others, lack of remorse
Histrionic- Excessive emotionality, attention seeking
Narcissistic- High self perception, ego
548
Borderline Personality Disorder
Impulsivity, fear of abandonment, mood swings, unstable relationships
549
Cluster C
Avoidant- Social inhibition, feelings of inadequacy, hypersensitivity to criticism
Dependent- Submissive and clinging behavior, fear of abandonment
Obsessive Compulsive- Preoccupation with perfection, order and control
550
Anorexia Nervosa
Persistent energy intake restrictions, fear of weight gain, disturbances in self perception, primarily affects females 15% below ideal body weight
551
Bulimia Nervosa
Binging and purging cycles
552
Binge Eating Disorder
Recurring episodes of binge eating
553
Addictive Disorders
Taking large amounts of a drug, being unable to stop, cravings, change in behavior, etc
554
Tolerance
Needing more of a drug to feel an effect
555
Psychotherapy
Talk therapy, counseling (psychologist, therapist, social worker)
556
Psychopharmacology
Medication (psychiatrist)
557
Psychoanalytic Therapy
Disorders are caused by repressed inner conflicts, neuroses, bring the unconscious into the conscious, free association, proceeds slowly, therapist helps pass through resistance, hypnosis, projective tests, dream analysis, therapist is a neutral listener, therapist interprets thoughts
558
Free Association
Whatever comes to mind
559
Transference
Giving feelings to therapist, positive or negative
560
Psychodynamic Therapy
Shorter, explores ways we avoid troubling thoughts, difficult to prove
561
Humanistic/Client Centered Therapy
Carl Rogers, person seeking treatment is equal to therapist, client leads, therapist facilitates growth and self esteem, therapist is an active listener, unconditional positive regard, no judgement, gentleness, empathy, helps empower, difficult for illness treatment
562
Behavioral Therapy
Behaviors are the result of learning, therapist works to learn new behaviors, beneficial for treatment, doesn’t account for cognition
563
Exposure Therapy
Mary Cover Jones, continuous exposure to a phobia to recover from it
564
Systematic Desensitization
Joseph Wolpe, gradual increases of the phobia to help recover from it
565
Flooding
Rapid, intense exposure
566
Aversive Conditioning
Pairing undesirable behavior with aversive stimulus
567
Token Economy
Operant conditioning, works well in office environments
568
Cognitive Therapy
Abnormal behaviors are the result of faulty thinking, therapist helps identify harmful thoughts
569
REBT
Albert Ellis, helping people think rationally, therapist is blunt and rational, reframing, thought stoppage, disputing
570
ABC Model
Activating Event, Beliefs, Consequence
571
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
Aaron Beck, creating a new self schema, warmer relationship between client and therapist, beneficial for disorders, decreases relapse
572
Dialectical Behavior Therapy
Marsha Linehan, CBT+mindfulness, dialetics
573
Dialetics
Everything is made of opposites
574
Biological Therapy
Disorders are a result of physical issues, psychopharmacology, electroconvulsive therapy, transcranial magnetic stimulation
575
Medications
Anxiolytics, anti-depressants, antipsychotic, mood stabilizers, stimulants
576
Electroconvulsive Therapy
Controlled electrical currents in the brain, treats depression and bipolar, 4 to 6 treatments needed before improvement shows
577
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
Electromagnetic pulses sent to “emotional lows” in the brain to activate depressed neurons
578
Eclectic Therapy
Based on biopsychosocial model, mix of other types of
579
Attribution Theory
Explains how we attribute our own behaviors and the behavior of others
580
Situational Attribution
Blaming or crediting the situation
581
Dispositional Attribution
Blaming or crediting a trait of someone
582
Outgroup Homogeneity
Allows for bias and prejudice
583
Representativeness Heuristic
Comparing someone of a new group to a “prototype” of that group
584
Self Serving Bias
Manipulating information to make yourself look good
585
Just World Hypothesis
The idea that the world is fair, victim blaming
586
Fundamental Attribution Error
Judging yourself differently than others
587
False Consensus Effect
Lots of people think how we do
588
Cognitive Dissonance
Attitude and behavior are in conflict
589
Elaboration Likelihood Model
How much someone thinks about relevant info in an argument
590
Central Route to Persuasion
Using facts to persuade, takes time, high level of elaboration
591
Peripheral Route to Persuasion
Using emotion, fast, heuristics
592
Solomon Asch Line Experiment
Looked at conformity
593
Informational Social Influence
Conforming because others might have better information
594
Normative Social Influence
Conforming because others have higher status
595
Milgram Obedience Study
“Teachers” were told to press a button and shock the “learner” with progressively bigger shocks, teachers complied with Milgram because he appeared as an authority
596
Stanford Prison Experiment
Philip Zombardo, people were assigned as prisoners or guards and both overly conformed to their roles, tested conformity
597
Diffusion of Responsibility
We feel less responsible to take the right action when others are around
598
Ingroup/Outgroup Bias
We like our group more than others
599
Deindividuation
Crowd dictates individual behavior
600
Bystander Effect
We feel less responsible to help when others are around
601
Social Facilitation
When others are around, people perform better at something they’re confident in
602
Reciprocity Norm
We do back what is done to us
603
Social Norms
An understanding of how people should behave
604
Social Inhibition
Changing our behavior to match norms
605
Group Polarization
Group decisions and opinions become more extreme
606
Social Traps
Short term competition reduces long term utility
607
Social Loafing
The idea that someone else will take care of work
608
Game Theory
A method of seeking a win-win
609
Bias
The predisposition of an attitude towards someone
610
Ethnocentrism
Judging other cultures according to the preconceptions of your own culture
611
Outgroup Homogeneity
“They’re all like that”
612
Mere Exposure Effect
Developing positive feelings for things after frequent exposure
613
Aggression
Hostile behavior towards others
614
Passive Aggression
Indirect hostile behavior
615
Scapegoating
Blaming innocents for the fault of others
616
Superordinate Goal
Two groups need each other to achieve the goal
617
Robber’s Cave Experiment
Field experiment, not generalizable, established aggression among groups and then made them work together, decreased aggression
618
Companionate Attraction
Deeper than friendship, but not passionate
619
Passionate Attraction
Intimate and physical, but lacking longevity
620
Consummate Attraction
Passionate and committed
621
Halo Effect
Thinking attractive people are nicer, smarter, kinder
622
Habituation
The diminishing of a response to a frequently repeated stimulus
623
Effects of Heroin
Lethargy, constricted pupils
624
Mild Disability
Deficits pertaining to abstract or theoretical functioning
625
Moderate Disability
Observable developmental delays, often with physical impairments
626
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Underlying psychological tension is caused by cognitive dissonance
627
Type 1 Error
Stating there was a difference when there wasn’t
628
Type 2 Error
Staring there was no difference when there was
629
Percentile
Scoring higher than that percentage of people
630
Delirium Tremens
Caused by alcohol withdrawals
631
Morphemes
A meaningful unit of a language
632
Aphasia
Limits conversation
633
Groupthink
Making decisions as a group that discourage creativity and individual responsibility
634
Ceiling Effect
Where an independent variable no longer affects the dependent variable
635
Ekman’s Emotions
Disgust, anger, fear, happiness, sadness, surprise
636
Olfactory Fatigue
Noseblindness
637
Malingering
Falsification or exaggeration of illness to gain benefits
638
Limbic System
The center of emotion in the brain
639
Categorical Variable
A set of two or more categories
640
Skinner Box
Mouse receives negative reinforcement
641
Skinner Box
Mouse receives negative reinforcement
642
Cocktail Party Effect
We are able to pick out one conversation that interests us in a room full of conversations
643
Pruning
The removal of synaptic connections to increase efficiency
644
Cochlear Implant
Helps with nerve deafness
645
Zone of Proximal Development
What a learner can do with guidance
646
Descriptive Statistics
Provide a level of confidence so researchers can reject the null hypothesis
647
Babinski Reflex
Stroking the feet causes toes to fan out
648
Moro Reflex
Occurs when infant is startled or feels like they’re falling
649
Palmar Reflex
Allows a newborn to grasp an object
650
Lazarus’s Model of Stress
Based on appraisal
651
Opponent Process Theory
One member of a color pair suppresses the other color in the pair
652
Internal Validity
The certainty that an experiment’s results were caused by the independent variable
653
Negative Triad
Negative beliefs about self, experiences, and the future
654
Weber’s Law
The larger the original stimulus, the larger the difference needs to be for the difference to be detected
655
Brain Waves in Sleep
Awake- Alpha
N1- Theta
N2- Spindles, k complexes
N3- Delta
REM- Beta
656
Overextension
The tendency of young children to use a word beyond its specific meaning
657
Underextension
Failure to use a word across its full adult range
658
Contact Hypothesis
Contact with a different group can reduce prejudice
659
Vanishing Point
The spot where two lines appear to meet
660
Motion Parallax
Objects that are closer appear to move faster
661
Aerial Perspective
The atmosphere causes distant objects to look hazy
662
Stereopsis
The ability to see the world in 3D
663
Retinal Convergence
The eyes turn inward to look at an object closely
664
Dishabituation
The response to a known stimulus is enhanced
665
Desensitization
Diminishes emotional response to a stimulus after repeated exposure
666
Shaping
Behaviors that get closer and closer to a desired behavior are rewarded
667
Acetylcholine
Memory, muscle contractions, voluntary movement
668
Content Validity
How much a test measures what it’s supposed to
669
Standardized
A test is administered to a sample reflecting the characteristics of the population
670
Rothbart’s Scales of Temperament
Surgency, negative affect, effortful control
