AP Psych Flashcards
Empiricism
the idea that knowledge comes from experience, and that observation and experimentation enable scientific knowledge
Introspection
Observing one’s own psychological processes through inward looking
Structuralism
Early school of thought, promoted by Wundt and Titchener, utilized introspection to understand human mind structure
Functionalism
An early school of thought, influenced by James and Darwin, explored mental and behavioral processes for organism adaptation, survival, and flourishing
Nature–Nurture
The debate over genes and experience’s role in psychological traits and behaviors has evolved to consider nature and nurture’s interaction
Positive Psychology
Scientific study of human flourishing aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues for individual and community success
Biopsychosocial
Biopsychosocial approach integrates biological, psychological, and social perspectives
Basic Research
Pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base
Basic Research
Pure science aims to expand scientific knowledge
Applied Research
A scientific study aimed at resolving practical problems
Wilhelm Wundt
Wilhelm Wundt founded the first psychology lab in Germany, combining physiology and philosophy, promoting introspection and structuralism.
G. Stanley Hall
the first American to earn a Ph.D. in psychology and president of the American Psychological Association, established the first psychology research laboratory
William James
James was a teacher-writer functionalist who authored an important principal of psychology text. He mentored Calkins.
Inez Beverly Prosser
First African-American woman to earn a psychology doctoral degree in the US
Mary Whiton Calkin
Pioneering memory researcher and first woman president of American Psychological Association
Margaret Floy Washburn
American psychologist, 2nd female APA president, researched animal theory, motor theory, and 1st woman to earn Ph.D. in psychology
Edward Titchener
British-American psychologist founded structuralism, Wundt’s student, the first school of psychology focusing on intropspection
Sigmund Freud
Austrian physician founded Pyschoanalytic School, focused on unconscious motives, personality formation, and psychoanalysis.
John B. Watson
American psychologist, founded the behaviorism school, which shifted from the “science of mental life” to the scientific study of observable behavior.
B.F Skinner
American psychologist and behaviorist, pioneer of operant conditioning, believed that behavior is determined by past rewards and punishments, using operant conditioning apparatus to study reinforcement schedules
Dorothea Dix
Pioneer in treating mentally ill, she improved conditions in jails, poorhouses, and asylums, persuading states to take responsibility, and created the first generation of American mental asylums
Hindsight Bias
The belief in foreseen outcomes after learning them.
Overconfidence
Overconfidence in beliefs and judgments leads to overestimation of accuracy
Operational Definition
A detailed description of research study procedures
Survey
Descriptive technique for gathering self-reported attitudes and behaviors from a representative random sample
Naturalistic observation
Descriptive technique observes and records behavior in natural situations without manipulation or control
Case Study
Descriptive technique studies an individual or group to uncover universal principles
Correlations
The relationship between two variables in statistical terms
Expirement
Research method manipulating factors to observe behavior effects
Confounding Variables
a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study’s results
Random Assignment
Randomly assigning participants to experimental and control groups to minimize differences
Constant
Unaffected sample to ensure reliability, eliminates errors, and eliminates bias
Experimenter Bias
Scientists’ tendency to introduce bias into experiments
Single-Blind Procedure
Experimental procedure involves experimenters knowing test and control group makeup, while subjects remain unaware of the results
Double-Blind Procedure
one in which neither the participants nor the experimenters know who is receiving a particular treatment
Placebo Effect
The placebo effect occurs when a treatment appears real but lacks therapeutic benefit, causing physical or mental health improvement
Hypothesis
a testable prediction, often implied by a theory
Independent Variable
in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied
Dependent Variable
in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated
Theory
An integrated explanation using principles for organizing observations and predicting behaviors
Sampling
Selecting the research group for data collection
Population
Study group members for sample collection
Representative Sample
A sample accurately reflects its population’s characteristics
Random Sampling
A sampling technique ensuring equal selection for all target population members
Institutional Review Board
Administrative body protecting research subjects’ rights and welfare
Descriptive Statistics
Numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups
Frequency Distribution
a summary of how often different scores occur within a sample of scores
Outlier
Data point or two that lie outside the norm
Positive V Negative Skew
Skewed distribution involves uneven frequency distribution, with positive data having a right-facing tail and negative data having a left-facing tail
Measures Of Variability - range, standard deviation, variance
Statistics that describe the amount of difference and spread in a data set
Roger Sperry
Discovered that human beings are of two minds. He found that the human brain has specialized functions on the right and left, and that the two sides can operate practically independently.
Micheal Gazzaniga
Revolutionized the understanding of human consciousness by showing that the brain’s two cerebral hemispheres undertake distinct cognitive functions. Known as the father of cognitive science
Paul Broca
He announced his discovery of the seats of articulate speech in the left frontal region of the brain, since known as the convolution of Broca
Carl Wernicke
“Wernicke’s area”; discovered area of left temporal lobe that involved language understanding: person damaged in this area uses correct words but they do not make sense
Neuron
a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
Dendrites
a neuron’s often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body
Cell body/soma
the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell’s life-support center
Axon
the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands
Myelin sheath
a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next
Terminal buttons/axon terminals
The branching structures at the ends of axons that release neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters
chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse
Synapse
the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft.
Receptor sites
Areas on the surface of neurons and other cells that are sensitive to neurotransmitters or hormones, locations that uniquely recognize a neurotransmitter
Threshold
the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
Action potential
a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
All-or-none principle
refers to the fact that the action potential in the axon occurs either full blown or not at all, all action potentials are the same strength
Neural firing
electrochemical process where electricity travels within the cell and neurotransmitters travel between cells and the synapse.
Excitatory neurotransmitter
cause depolarization and promote action potential generation, increases the likelihood that the neuron will fire.
Inhibitory neurotransmitter
cause hyperpolarization and suppress the generation of action potentials, decreases the likelihood that the neuron will fire
Acetylcholine
a neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction, a lack of this is associated with Alzheimer’s
Dopamine
It plays a role as a “reward center” and in many body functions, including memory, movement, motivation, mood, attention and more
Endorphins
natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure
Serotonin
A chemical that carries messages between nerve cells in the brain and throughout your body
GABA
Brains main inhibitory NT. Regulates sleep and wake cycles
Glutamate
Brains main inhibitory NT. Basis of learning and long term memory
Norepinephrine
Responsible for arousal and alertness, mood elevation
Afferent neurons
neurons that carry incoming information from the body’s tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.
Efferent neuron
neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands
Central nervous system
the brain and spinal cord.
Peripheral nervous system
the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body
Sympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy.
Parasympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy
Lesions
A region in an organ or tissue which has suffered damage through injury or disease, such as a wound, ulcer, abscess, or tumor
EEG
an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.
CAT/CT scan
a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain’s structure.
MRI scan
A medical imaging technique that uses a magnetic field and computer-generated radio waves to create detailed images of the organs and tissues in your body
PET scan
a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task
fMRI
a technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function as well as structure.
Hindbrain
The structure on top of the spinal cord. It controls basic bio functions. It includes: the medulla, pons, cerebellum.
Medulla
the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing.
Pons
located above medulla. Connects the hindbrain with midbrain and forebrain. involved in facial expressions
Cerebellum
the “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory.
Midbrain
A portion of the brain located just above the medulla. Controls pons and contains basic vision and hearing functions.
Reticular formation
a nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal
Forebrain
The largest and uppermost part of the brain. Thalamus. A structure in the forebrain that serves as a relay station for sensory information and that plays a key role in regulating states of wakefulness and sleep.
Thalamus
the brain’s sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.
Hypothalamus
a neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.
Amygdala
two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion
Hippocampus
a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process for storage explicit (conscious) memories of facts and events
Limbic system
neural system (including the amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives.
Cerebral cortex
the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information-processing center.
Hemisphere specialization
refers to the different and specific functions performed by the two hemispheres of the brain
Corpus callosum
the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
Frontal lobes
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments.
Parietal lobes
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position.
Temporal lobes
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear.
Occipital lobes
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields
Brain plasticity
The brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience
Endocrine system
the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
Adrenal glands
a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.
Measures of central tendency - mean, median, mode
characterize the typical value in a set of data
Correlation coefficient
a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from −1.00 to +1.00)
Scatter plot
a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables.
Regression line
The line drawn through the scatter plot that minimizes the distance of all the points from the line.
Inferential stats
numerical data that allow one to generalize—to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population
Statistical significance
a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.
