AP Language Flashcards
List of Words
Active Voice
Definition - The subject of the sentence performs the action.
Active Voice
Example - “Anthony drove while Toni searched for the house.”
Active Voice
Effect on the Text - In most cases, using active voice will result in shorter, sharper sentences that are easier for the reader to follow.
Allusion
Definition - An indirect reference to something with which the reader is supposed to be familiar.
Allusion
Example - “Chocolate is his Krytonite.”
Allusion
Effect on the Text - If a character within a story uses an allusion (refers to another piece of work), it can give deeper insight on what kind of person they are.
Alter-Ego
Defintion - A character that is used by the author to speak the author’s own thoughts; when an author
speaks directly to the audience through a character.
Alter-Ego
Example - Bill Nye the Science Guy is a example.
Alter-Ego
Effect on the Text - Much of the text is found in a first person point of view.
Anecdote
Defintion - A brief recounting of a relevant episode.
Anecdote
Example - “Last week’s episode on Dragon Ball Z”
Anecdote
Effect on the Text - Their effect is often to create an emotional or sympathetic response.
Antecedent
Definiton - The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun.
Antecedent
Example - “If I could command the wealth of all the world by lifting my finger, I would not pay such a price for it.”
Antecedent
Effect of the Text - the antecedent replaces where those pronouns are.
Classicism
Definition - Art or literature characterized by a realistic view of people and the world; sticks to traditional themes and structures.
Classicism
Example - This can conclude of Dante, Petrarch, and Shakespeare in poetry and theatre
Classicism
Effect of the Text - The reader can relate to these views, as they may have heard them in other places.
Comic Relief
Definition - when a humorous scene is inserted into a serious story, in order to lighten the mood
somewhat.
Comic Relief
Example - The “gatekeeper scene” in Macbeth is an example of comic relief.
Comic Relief
Effect on the Text - the text would try to show the growth of a punchline of some sorts.
Diction
Defintion - Word choice, particularly as an element of style.
Diction
Example - many forms of this include Colloquial, Connotation, Denotation, Jargon, and Vernacular.
Diction
Effect of the Text - Diction can have a great effect on the tone of a piece of literature, and how readers perceive the characters.
Colloquial
Defintion - Ordinary or familiar type of conversation.
Colloquial
Example - some including “truck”/“lorry”, “soccer”/“football”, and “parakeet”/“budgie”.
Colloquial
Effect on the Text - When appropriately used, colloquial language can be useful in creating a bond between reader and writer that makes it easier for the reader to agree with the writer’s point of view, but can come across as out of place with a serious issue.
Connotation
Defintion - Rather than the dictionary definition (denotation), the associations suggested by a
word.
Connotation
Example - The “Dog”, “Pet”, and “Man’s best friend” still implies that it still comes from that dog.
Connotation
Effect on the Text - Words with strongly positive connotations often persuade readers to see your ideas in a favorable way.
Denotation
Definition - The literal, explicit meaning of a word, without its connotations.
Denotation
Example - “The man was red”
Denotation
Effect on the Text - an author wants the reader to understand a word, phrase, or sentence in its literal form, without other implied, associated, or suggested meanings.
Jargon
Definition - The diction used by a group which practices a similar profession or activity
Jargon
Example - “Due diligence”, refers to having research before a important business decision.
Jargon
Effect on the Text - Jargon words are meant to enhance communication by simplifying a particular concept.
Vernacular
Definition - 1. Language or dialect of a particular country. 2. Language or dialect of a regional
clan or group. 3. Plain everyday speech
Vernacular
Example - US being a example of where a group of people use a certain language.
Vernacular
Effect on the Text - The word “vernacular” helps express that the language used is that of a specific group, especially when it is different from the standard language used in that setting.
Didactic
Definition - A term used to describe fiction, nonfiction or poetry that teaches a specific lesson or moral or provides a model of correct behavior or thinking.
Didactic
Example - One key example includes: An Inspector Calls- teaching us that we are all equal and we are all “responsible for each other”.
Didactic
Effect on the Text - To give the reader a sense of what morals they’ll learn in this writing.
Adage
Definition - A folk saying with a lesson.
Adage
Example - “A rolling stone gathers no moss.”
Adage
Effect on the Text - The text are mostly concise and philosophical.
Allegory
Definition - A story, fictional or non fictional, in which characters, things, and events represent
qualities or concepts.
Allegory
Example - Animal Farm, by George Orwell, is an allegory.
Allegory
Effect on the Text - In allegory, nearly all elements of the narrative typically can be interpreted as having a symbolic meaning that enhances the broader meaning of the story.
Aphorism
Definition - A terse statement which expresses a general truth or moral principle.
Aphorism
Example - “God helps them that help themselves,”
Aphorism
Effect on the Text - writers use aphorisms to cleverly and concisely express observations or philosophical ideas.
Ellipsis
Definition - The deliberate omission of a word or phrase from prose done for effect by the author.
Ellipsis
Example - “The whole day, rain, torrents of rain.”
Ellipsis
Effect on the Text - used when omitting a word, phrase, line, paragraph, or more from a quoted passage. Ellipses save space or remove material that is less relevant.
Euphemism
Definition - A more agreeable or less offensive substitute for generally unpleasant words or concepts.
Euphemism
Example - “Physically challenged,” in place of “crippled.”
Euphemism
Effect on the Text - It replaces the words which are impolite and it is noticeably used in the daily language. Additionally, Euphemism is the idiomatic expression that loses its literal meaning and it is used in the sentences to hide the unpleasantness.
Figurative Language
Definiton - “Figurative Language” is the opposite:
writing that is not meant to be taken literally.
Figurative Language
Example - some examples include anolgy, hyperbole, and metaphor.
Figurative Language
Effect on the Text - cantransform ordinary descriptions into evocative events, enhance the emotional significance of passages, and turn prose into a form of poetry. It can also help the reader to understand the underlying symbolism of a scene or more fully recognize a literary theme.
Analogy
Definition - An analogy is a comparison of one pair of variables to a parallel set of variables.
Analogy
Example - “America is to the world as the hippo is to the jungle.”
Analogy
Effect on the Text - serves to draw the reader’s attention to the text and its structure. It is used to slow down processing so that the aesthetics of the text may be more prominent, its goal being the deautomatization of ordinary perception.
Hyperbole
Definition - Exaggeration.
Hyperbole
Example - “My mother will kill me if I am late.”
Hyperbole
Effect on the Text - the intended effect isn’t to deceive the reader, it’s to emphasize the magnitude of something through exaggerated comparison.
Idiom
Definiton - A common, often used expression that doesn’t make sense if you take it literally.
Idiom
Example - “I got chewed out by my coach.”
Idiom
Effect on the Text - idioms can amplify messages in a way that draws readers in and helps to awaken their senses.
Metaphor
Definiton - Making an implied comparison, not using “like,” as,” or other such words.
Metaphor
Example - “My feet are popsicles.”
Metaphor
Effect on the Text - Metaphor expresses nuances for which no standard vocabulary exists, and entices readers to think in abstract ways.
Metonymy
Definition - Replacing an actual word or idea, with a related word or concept.
Metonymy
Example - “Relations between London and Washington have been strained,”
Metonymy
Effect on the Text - Replacing words and ideas with others that are closely associated with the original words and ideas allows the reader a more profound way of considering the meaning of an image or concept that the writer is trying to convey.
Synecdoche
Definiton - A kind of metonymy when a whole is represented by naming one of its parts, or vice versa.
Synecdoche
Example - “The cattle rancher owned 500 head.” “Check out my new wheels.”
Synecdoche
Effect on the Text - Often synecdoches can elevate language, making a sentence or phrase sound more interesting or more poetic. Synecdoches can also help the writer create a strong voice for a character or for a narrator.
Simile
Definition - Using words such as “like” or “as” to make a direct comparison between two very
different things.
Simile
Example - “He’s mysterious like a ghost.”
Simile
Effect on the Text - they will make your text more interesting and engaging to readers, using “like” or “as” as fill ins.
Synesthesia
Definiton - a description involving a “crossing of the senses.”
Synesthesia
Example - “A purplish scent filled the room.”
Synesthesia
Effect on the Text - allows authors to deliver another level of description in literature. Helps readers think more outside the box.
Personification
Definition - Giving human-like qualities to something that is not human.
Personification
Example - “The tired old truck groaned as it inched up the hill.”
Personification
Effect on the Text - Personification stretches the boundaries of reality to make literature and poetry more vivid.
Foreshadowing
Definition - When an author gives hints about what will occur later in a story.
Foreshadowing
Example - In “Star Wars: The Empire Strikes Back”, After Luke faced his fears of Darth Vader like Master Yoda told him to do, he sees his own face through the mask of Sith Lord.
Foreshadowing
Effect on the Text - if the text foreshadows something, the reader feels prepared for the events when they happen.
Genre
Definition - The major category into which a literary work fits.
Genre
Example - Some include autobiography, biography, fantasy, and sci-fi.
Genre
Effect on the Text - The purpose of the genre label for readers is that it “sets a certain horizon of expectations and offers a key to understanding the text
Gothic
Definition - Writing characterized by gloom, mystery, fear and/or death.
Gothic
Example - The Frankenstein stories are a good example of something gothic.
Gothic
Effect on the Text - it shows unexplained phenomenon that darkens the tone of the text.
Imagery
Definition - Word or words that create a picture in the reader’s mind.
Imagery
Example - being stuff that helps go along with similies and metaphors.
Imagery
Effect on the Text - By using imagery, writers can evoke the feeling they want to talk about in their readers…and by making their readers feel, writers can also help readers connect to the messages in their work.
Invective
Definition - A long, emotionally violent, attack using strong, abusive language.
Invective
Example - “A knave, a rascal; an eater of broken meats…”
Invective
Effect on the Text - Invective is an important literary device in that the insult canarouse negative emotionin the audience as well as the target of the insult.
Irony
Definition - When the opposite of what you expect to happen does.
Irony
Example - including verbal, dramatic, and situational irony.
Irony
Effect on the Text - irony involves using words so the intended meaning is the opposite of the literal meaning.
Verbal Irony
Definition - When you say something and mean the opposite/something different.
Verbal Irony
Example - if your gym teacher wants you to run a mile in eight minutes or faster, but calls it a “walk in the park”
Verbal Irony
Effect on the Text - This approach to irony can help the reader gain insight into eachcharacter’spersonality.
Dramatic Irony
Definition - When the audience of a drama, play, movie, etc. knows something that the character doesn’t and would be surprised to find out.
Dramatic Irony
Example - When audience knows who the antagonist of the story is, but the character has no clue, and blindy trusts them.
Dramatic Irony
Effect on the Text - Dramatic irony can stimulate strong emotions in a reader because the reader knows what awaits a character and may see the character act against his or her own well-being.
Situational Irony
Definition - Found in the plot (or story line) of a book, story, or movie.
Situational Irony
Example - “Johnny spent two hours planning on sneaking into the movie theater and missed the movie. When he finally did manage to sneak inside he found out that kids were admitted free that day”
Situational Irony
Effect on the Text - Authors use this device to create a more relatable situation or character within literature. It can also be used to change the tone or mood of a written work.
Juxtaposition
Definition - Placing things side by side for the purposes of comparison.
Juxtaposition
Example - Having two kids compare the other clothing to see which has the best outfit.
Juxtaposition
Effect on the Text - Juxtaposition can have the effect of absurdity or humor, or create a link between elements and images that appear unrelated until they are paired.
Mood
Definition - The atmosphere created by the literature and accomplished through word choice (diction).
Mood
Example - In “Star Wars: Return of the Jedi”, The Stormtroopers massacre the Ewoks effortlessly one by one.
Mood
Effect on the Text - allows readers to experience emotion and connection within a story, making the literary work more meaningful and memorable.
Motif
Definition - a recurring idea in a piece of literature.
Motif
Example - In To Kill a Mockingbird, the idea that “you never really understand another person until you consider things from his or her point of view” is a motif
Motif
Effect on the Text - A motif generally reinforces the theme of the text. A motif must be repeated throughout a text to be considered a motif.
Oxymoron
Definition - When apparently contradictory terms are grouped together and suggest a paradox – “wise
fool,” “eloquent silence,” “jumbo shrimp
Oxymoron
Example - “wise
fool,” “eloquent silence,” “jumbo shrimp
Oxymoron
Effect on the Text - By using an oxymoron, the author adds an element of complexity and encourages the reader to think deeply about a particular idea.
Pacing
Definition - The speed or tempo of an author’s writing.
Pacing
Example - examples using syntax, polysyndeton, anaphora, and meter are used to speed up the pace.
Pacing
Effect on the Text - both paces fast and slow, being used cooperatively together to help the text.
Paradox
Definition - A seemingly contradictory situation which is actually true.
Paradox
Example - “You can’t get a job without
experience, and you can’t get experience without getting a job.”
Paradox
Effect on the Text - When a reader looks at a paradox, they look over the idea in a more innovative way. When a reader sees a paradox, think of it as a “Huh, that’s interesting” moment.
Parallelism
Definition - Sentence construction which places equal grammatical constructions near each other, or repeats identical grammatical patterns.
Parallelism
Example - “Cinderella swept the floor, dusted the mantle, and beat the rugs.”
Parallelism
Effect on the Text - Its repetitive quality makes the sentence or sentences symmetrical and therefore very memorable for the reader.
Anaphora
Definition - Repetition of a word, phrase, or clause at the beginning of two or more sentences or clauses in a row.
Anaphora
Example - “I came, I saw, I conquered.”
Anaphora
Effect on the Text - Anaphora serves the purpose of delivering an artistic effect to a passage.
Chiasmus
Definition - When the same words are used twice in succession, but the second time, the order of
the words is reversed.
Chiasmus
Example - “Fair is foul and foul is fair.”
Chiasmus
Effect on the Text - It’s usedto reiterate concepts, to condense a complex idea to a manageable size, and to draw connections between contrasting ideas.
Antithesis
Definition - Two opposite or contrasting words, phrases, or clauses, or even ideas, with parallel
structure.
Antithesis
Example - It was the best of times, it was the worst of times”
Antithesis
Effect on the Text - When used correctly, antithesis highlights the stark difference between opposing ideas by placing them side-by-side in exactly the same structure.
Zuegma(Syllepsis)
Definition - When a single word governs or modifies two or more other words, and the meaning of the first word must change for each of the other words it governs or modifies.
Zuegma(Syllepsis)
Example - “I quickly dressed myself and the salad.”
Zuegma(Syllepsis)
Effect on the Text - if used correctly, it adds flavor to literary texts as it helps produce a dramatic effect, which could possibly be shocking in its result.
Parenthetical Idea
Definition - Parentheses are used to set off an idea from the rest of the sentence.
Parenthetical Idea
Example - “In a short time (and the time is getting shorter by the gallon) America will be out of oil.”
Parenthetical Idea
Effect on the Text - Parentheses communicate to readers that the material inside the parentheses is not necessary to understand the main sentence, nor is it part of the grammar of the main sentence, but is pertinent enough to be included.
Parody
Definition - An exaggerated imitation of a serious work for humorous purposes.
Parody
Example - YouTubers make loads of parodies of movies, shows, books, and comics.
Parody
Effect on the Text - This humor usually takes in the place of a satire and uses over exaggeration to achieve this effect.
Persona
Definition - The fictional mask or narrator that tells a story.
Persona
Example - Alfred Prufrock.” Another unique persona is the un-named femal narrator of Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s story “The Yellow Wallpaper.”
Persona
Effect on the Text - it change the expression, making it more artistic.
Poetic Device
Definition - A device used in poetry to manipulate the sound of words, sentences or lines.
Poetic Device
Example - some include Alliteration or onomatopoeia
Poetic Device
Effect on the Text - it effects it by enhancing the flow of the poems.
Alliteration
Definition - The repetition of the same consonant sound at the beginning of words.
Alliteration
Example - “Sally sells sea shells by the sea shore”
Alliteration
Effect on the Text - The sound of alliteration can help create the mood or tone of a poem or piece of prose.
Assonance
Definition - The repetition of identical or similar vowel sounds.
Assonance
Example - “From the molten-golden notes”
Assonance
Effect on the Text - It helps to embed a set of words within the mind of whoever is hearing them.
Consonance
Definition - The repetition of the same consonant sound at the end of words or within words.
Consonance
Example - “Some late visitor entreating entrance at my chamber door”
Consonance
Effect on the Text - In both poetry and prose, consonance cangive language a musical element, as well as emphasize sounds or words that resonate with the main ideas or themes of the work.
Onomatopoeia
Definition - The use of a word which imitates or suggests the sound that the thing makes.
Onomatopoeia
Example - Snap, rustle, boom, murmur
Onomatopoeia
Effect on the Text - It can add excitement, action, and interest by allowing the reader to hear and remember your writing.
Internal Rhyme
Definition - When a line of poetry contains a rhyme within a single line.
Internal Rhyme
Example - “To the rhyming and the chiming of the bells!”
Internal Rhyme
Effect on the Text - Function of an internal rhyme is to heighten the poem’s effect and make the poem more unified with a rhyming aspect within
Slant Rhyme
Definition - When a poet creates a rhyme, but the two words do not rhyme exactly – they are merely similar.
Slant Rhyme
Example - “I sat upon a stone, / And found my life has gone.”
Slant Rhyme
Effect on the Text - Using a slant rhyme insteadcatches the reader by surprise and subverts their expectations, delivering a satisfyingly unexpected twist. Slant rhymes allow for more creative word choice.
End Rhyme
Definition - When the last word of two different lines of poetry rhyme.
End Rhyme
Example - “Roses are red, violets are blue, / Sugar is sweet, and so are you.”
End Rhyme
Effect on the Text - End rhymes make it easy for readers to remember and recite poetry.
Rhyme Scheme
Definition - The pattern of a poem’s end rhymes.
Rhyme Scheme
Example -
Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day? a
Thou art more lovely and more temperate. b
Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May a
And summer’s lease hath all too short a date. b
Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines c
And often is his gold complexion dimmed d
And every fair from fair sometime declines c
By chance or nature’s changing course untrimmed d
Rhyme Scheme
Effect on the Text - Rhyme scheme moves the poem smoothly and adds substance to the words. It can affect the mood and add appeal to the poem.
Stressed and Unstressed Syllables
Definition - In every word of more than one syllable, one of the syllables is stressed, or said with more force than the other syllable(s).
Stressed and Unstressed Syllables
Example - . In the name “Nathan,” the first syllable is stressed. In the word “unhappiness,” the second of the four syllables is stressed.
Stressed and Unstressed Syllables
Effect on the Text - it changes the pitch of the words.
Meter
Definition - A regular pattern to the syllables in lines of poetry.
Meter
Example - Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?
Meter
Effect on the Text - it helps readers understand rhythm as it relates to words and lines in a poem.
Free Verse
Definition - Poetry that doesn’t have much meter or rhyme.
Free Verse
Example - Singing random gibberish is a example of that
Free Verse
Effect on the Text - Free verse opens up a realm of possibilities by freeing a poem from formal constraints.
Iambic Pentameter
Definition - Poetry that is written in lines of 10 syllables, alternating stressed and unstressed syllables.
Iambic Pentameter
Example - “Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?”
Iambic Pentameter
Effect on the Text - Iambic pentameter carries a hum-drum, repetitive rhythm. Contrasted with shorter, unpredictable lines, you can create themes of boredom versus excitement, stability versus chaos, and so on.
Sonnet
Definition - A 14 line poem written in iambic pentameter. Usually divided into three quatrains and a couplet.
Sonnet
Example - “Death be not proud.” —John Donne. “Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?” William Shakespeare. “i carry your heart with me(i carry it in / my heart)” —e.e. cummings.
Sonnet
Effect on the Text - The more or less set rhyme patterns occurring regularly within the short space of fourteen lines afford a pleasant effect on the ear of the reader, and can Create truly musical effects.
Polysyndeton
Definition - When a writer creates a list of items which are all separated by conjunctions.
Polysyndeton
Example - “I walked the dog, and fed
the cat, and milked the cows.”
Polysnydenton
Effect on the Text - The primary effect of polysyndeton is to slow readers down so they can take in all the information.
Pun
Definition - When a word that has two or more meanings is used in a humorous way.
Pun
Example - “My dog has a fur coat
and pants!”
Pun
Effect on the Text - the text may look unusual, but its usef for sound to compare words that would normally be used.
Rhetoric
Definition - The art of effective communication.
Rhetoric
Example - How did this idiot get elected? – A rhetorical question to convince others that the “idiot” does not deserve to be elected.
Rhetoric
Effect on the Text - The primary effect of polysyndeton is to slow readers down so they can take in all the information.
Aristotle’s Rhetorical Triangle
Definition - The relationships, in any piece of writing, between the writer, the audience, and the subject.
Aristotle’s Rhetorical Triangle
Example - “The angry parent asked the child, ‘Are you finished interrupting me?’”
Aristotle’s Rhetorical Triangle
Effect on the Text - the text is affected and allows it to be used to sway the reader.
Rhetorical Question
Definition - Question not asked for information but for effect.
Rhetorical Question
Example - “The angry parent asked the child, ‘Are you finished interrupting me?’”
Rhetorical Question
Effect on the Text - Rhetorical questions are a useful technique in persuasive writing. As there is nobody to answer the question, a rhetorical question is usually designed to speak directly to the reader.
Romanticism
Definition - Art or literature characterized by an idealistic, perhaps unrealistic view of people and the world, and an emphasis on nature.
Romanticism
Example - a poem titled “A Poision Tree” is a example.
Romanticism
Effect on the Text - As mode of thinking, romanticism revolutionized literature, religion and philosophy. It questioned the settled way of thinking which had widely spread with the age of Enlightenment : the age that gave priority to reason, and preference to ideas.
Sarcasm
Definition - A generally bitter comment that is ironically or satirically worded.
Sarcasm
Example - “Oh no! There’s a invisible wall in my way. Oh whatever shall I do?”
Sarcasm
Effect on the Text - As a form of communication, sarcasm takes on the debt of conflict.
Satire
Definition - A work that reveals a critical attitude toward some element of life to a humorous effect.
Satire
Example - George Orwell’s famous 1945 novel “Animal Farm” is a good example of Juvenalian satire.
Satire
Effect on the Text - Satire uses irony, often in a humorous way, to point out the problems with the behavior being critiqued.
Sentence
Definition - A sentence is group of words (including subject and verb) that expresses a complete thought.
Sentence
Example - “The Tortoise beated the Hare, since he crossed the finish line first.”
Sentence
Effect on the Text - The structure affects the meaning of the story by organizing the theme of the writing.
Appositive
Definition - A word or group of words placed beside a noun or noun substitute to supplement its
meaning.
Appositive
Example - “Bob, the lumber yard worker, spoke with Judy, an accountant from the city.”
Appositive
Effect on the Text - An appositive noun also defines, explains, and clarifies the meaning of a sentence.
Clause
Definition - A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb.
Clause
Example - “Other than baseball, football is my favorite sport.” In this sentence, the independent clause is “football is my favorite sport” and the dependent clause is “Other than baseball.”
Clause
Effect on the Text - it helps other phrases join together.
Balanced Sentence
Definition - A sentence in which two parallel elements are set off against each other like equal weights on a scale.
Balanced Sentence
Example - “If a free society cannot help the many who are poor, it cannot save the few who are rich.”
Balanced Sentence
Effect on the Text - Writers use balanced sentences to emphasize particular ideas to make meanings clear, as well as to create pleasing rhythms.
Compound Sentence
Definition - Contains at least two independent clauses but no dependent clauses.
Compound Sentence
Example - “This house is too expensive, and that house is too small.”
Compound Sentence
Effect on the Text - Compound sentences can make someone’s writing rich and colorful.
Complex Sentence
Definition - Contains only one independent clause and at least one dependent clause.
Complex Sentence
Example - “Whenever he was lonely, Lance called his mother.”
Complex Sentence
Effect on the Text - Complex sentences can force the reader to focus on one part of a sentence (one idea) rather than another part of a sentence.
Cumulative Sentence
Definition - (also called a loose sentence) When the writer begins with an independent clause, then adds subordinate elements.
Cumulative Sentence
Example - “He doubted whether he could ever
again appear before an audience, his confidence broken, his limbs shaking, his collar wet with perspiration.”
Cumulatove Sentence
Effect on the Text - Cumulative sentences give an informal, conversational, and relaxed feeling to a work of art.
Periodic Sentence
Definition - When the main idea is not completed until the end of the sentence.
Periodic Sentence
Example - “His confidence broken, his limbs shaking, his collar wet with perspiration, he doubted whether he could ever again appear before an audience.”
Periodic Sentence
Effect on the Text - It can also create suspense or interest for the reader.
Simple Sentence
Definition - Contains only one independent clause.
Simple Sentence
Example - “The cat meowed.”
Simple Sentence
Effect on the Text - simple sentences or truncated sentencescan create tension, haste or urgency.
Declarative Sentence
Definition - States an idea. It does not give a command or request, nor does it ask a question.
Declarative Sentence
Example - “The ball is round.”
Declarative Sentence
Effect on the Text - A declarative sentence states the facts or an opinion and lets the reader know something specific. It always ends with a period.
Imperative Sentence
Definition - Issues a command.
Imperative Sentence
Example - “Kick the ball.”
Imperative Sentence
Effect on the Text - it effects it by giving a more demanding tone.
Interrogative Sentence
Definition - Sentences incorporating interrogative pronouns (what, which, who, whom, and whose).
Interrogative Sentence
Example - “To whom did you kick the ball?”
Interrogative Sentence
Effect on the Text - interrogative sentences force the reader to think about what you have written.
Style
Definition - The choices in diction, tone, and syntax that a writer makes.
Style
Example - descriptive and poetic are some examples.
Style
Effect on the Text - As the package for the meaning of the text, style influences the reader’s impression of the information itself.
Symbol
Definition - Anything that represents or stands for something else. Usually a symbol is something concrete such as an object, actions, character…that represents something more abstract.
Symbol
Example - the Whale in Moby Dick, the river and the jungle in Heart of Darkness, and the Raven in “The Raven.”
Symbol
Effect on the Text - symbolismallows a writer to convey something to their audience in a poetic way instead of saying it outright.
Syntax/Sentence Variety
Definition - Grammatical arrangement of words.
Syntax/Sentence Variety
Example - “The boy ran hurriedly,”
Syntax/Sentence Variety
Effect on the Text - the tone, atmosphere, and meaning of the sentence. It can make something sound more formal.
Theme
Definition - The central idea or message of a work.
Theme
Example - “Not everyone is walking the same path as eachother”
Theme
Effect on the Text - theme allows readers to relate to the characters and their struggles – and to feel invested in the outcome.
Thesis
Definition - The sentence or groups of sentences that directly expresses the author’s opinion, purpose, meaning, or proposition.
Thesis
Example - In Willa Cather’s short story, “Paul’s Case,” Paul exhibits suicidal behavior that a caring adult might have recognized and remedied had that adult had the scientific knowledge we have today.
Thesis
Effect on the Text - It summarizes the conclusions that the writer has reached about the topic.
Tone
Definition - A writer’s attitude toward his subject matter revealed through diction, figurative language and organization.
Tone
Example - It can be joyful, serious, humorous, sad, threatening, formal, informal, pessimistic, and optimistic.
Tone
Effect on the Text - Ultimately, the tone of a message is a reflection of the writer and it does affect how the reader will perceive the message.
Understatement
Definition - The ironic minimizing of fact, understatement presents something as less significant than it is.
Understatement
Example - “Our defense played valiantly, and held the other team to merely eight touchdowns in the first quarter.”
Understatement
Effect on the Text - An understatement plays with the reader’s expectations — downplaying a situation when the reader might imagine a more intense response.
Litotes
Definition - a particular form of understatement, generated by denying the opposite of the statement which otherwise would be used.
Litotes
Example - “Hitting that telephone pole certainly didn’t do your car any good”, or becomes an intensifying expression “The flavors of the mushrooms, herbs, and spices combine to make the dish not at all disagreeable”.
Litotes
Effect on the Text - Litotes also allows the speaker or writer to effectively communicate in an atypical way.
Argument
Definition - An argument is a piece of reasoning with one or more premises and a conclusion.
Argument
Example - “All Spam is pink”
Argument
Effect on the Text - it attracts the reader’s focus to an issue that will be made clear gradually.
Premises
Definition - Statements offered as reasons to support a conclusion are premises.
Premises
Example - “The game was won on the premise that the home team had been out of bounds.” The letter was capitalized on the premise that it was a proper noun.
Premises
Effect on the Text - It is the most basic foundation of a writer’s work—in fiction, it supports the plot; in non fiction, its role is to support the information and/or research that will be presented.
Conclusion
Definition - A conclusion is the end result of the argument – the main point being made.
Conclusion
Example - When you write a paper, you always end by summing up your arguments and drawing a conclusion about what you’ve been writing about.
Conclusion
Effect on the Text - it provides closure for the reader while reminding the reader of the contents and importance of the paper.
Aristotle’s Appeals
Definition - The goal of argumentative writing is to persuade an audience that one’s ideas are valid, or more valid than someone else’s.
Aristotle’s Appeals
Example - Ethos, pathos, and logos are examples of that.
Aristotle’s Appeals
Effect on the Text - This makes any opposition to the writer’s point of view appear conse- quently illogical, therefore encouraging the reader to reject it.
Ethos
Definition - means being convinced by the credibility of the author.
Ethos
Example - A commercial about a specific brand of toothpaste says that 4 out of 5 dentists use it.
Ethos
Effect on the Text - Ethos appeals to the writer’s character.
Pathos
Definition - means persuading by appealing to the reader’s emotions.
Pathos
Example - In his poem, Auden relies on pathos as a literary device to evoke feelings of grief and inspire sympathy in the reader.
Pathos
Effect on the Text - Authors make deliberate word choices, use meaningful language, and use examples and stories that evoke emotion.
Logos
Definition - means persuading by the use of reasoning, using true premises and valid arguments.
Logos
Example - can be found in argumentative writing and persuasive arguments, in addition to literature and poetry.
Logos
Effect on the Text - logos can be defined as a writer’s or speaker’s attempt to appeal to the logic or reason of their audience.
Concession
Definition - Accepting at least part or all of an opposing viewpoint.
Concession
Example - A teenager arguing to her parents that she needs a cell phone makes the following concession: I know that you think I will just use the phone to text during class and call friends instead of doing homework.
Concession
Effect on the Text - the speaker or writer lets readers know that he or she has considered the other side of the argument and understands it.
Conditional Statement
Definition - A conditional statement is an if-then statement and consists of two parts, an antecedent and a consequent.
Conditional Statement
Example - “If you studied hard, then you will pass the test.”
Conditional Statement
Effect on the Text - it shows more possible pathways.
Contradiction
Definition - A contradiction occurs when one asserts two mutually exclusive propositions.
Contradiction
Example - “Abortion is wrong and abortion is not wrong.”
Contradiction
Effect on the Text - As a literary device, oxymoron has the effect of creating an impression, enhancing a concept, and even entertaining the reader.
Counterexample
Definition - A counterexample is an example that runs counter to (opposes) a generalization, thus falsifying it.
Counterexample
Example - consider the proposition “all students are lazy”. … Thus, any hard-working student is a counterexample to “all students are lazy”.
Counterexample
Effect on the Text - By using counterexamples to show that certain conjectures are false, mathematical researchers can then avoid going down blind alleys and learn to modify conjectures to produce provable theorems.
Deductive Argument
Definition - An argument in which it is thought that the premises provide a guarantee of the truth of the conclusion.
Deductive Argument
Example - “All men are mortal. Harold is a man. Therefore, Harold is mortal.”
Deductive Argument
Effect on the Text - a conclusion follows inescapably from one or more of the premises. If the premises are true, then the conclusion drawn is valid.
Fallacy
Definition - A fallacy is an attractive but unreliable piece of reasoning.
Fallacy
Example - some include ad hominem, bad analogy, and appeal to emotion.
Fallacy
Effect on the Text - Fallacies can be either illegitimate arguments or irrelevant points, and are often identified because they lack evidence that supports their claim.
Ad Hominem
Definition - Personally attacking your opponents instead of their arguments. It is an argument that appeals to emotion rather than reason, feeling rather than intellect.
Ad Hominem
Example - “You’re too short to have anything to say.”
Ad Hominem
Effect on the Text - This can be very persuasive because it evokes an emotional response in the reader
Appeal to Authority
Definition - The claim that because somebody famous supports an idea, the idea must be
right. This fallacy is often used in advertising.
Appeal to Authority
Example - Advertising is often used.
Appeal to Authority
Effect on the Text - Instead of presenting actual evidence, the argument just relies on the credibility of the “authority.”
Appeal to the Bandwagon
Definition - The claim, as evidence for an idea, that many people believe it, or used to believe it, or do it.
Appeal to the Bandwagon
Example - “Kyrie Irving is a flat-earther, so that means it must be true!”
Appeal to the Bandwagon
Effect on the Text - The idea of the Bandwagon Appeal is to make people feel like they’re missing out or falling behind if they don’t join the crowd and be a part of the trend.
Appeal to Emotion
Definition - An attempt to replace a logical argument with an appeal to the audience’s
emotions.
Appeal to Emotion
Example - Martin Luther King’s “I Have a Dream” speech can be one.
Appeal to Emotion
Effect on the Text - encourage the audience to identify with your message on a visceral level,
Bad Analogy
Definition - Claiming that two situations are highly similar, when they aren’t.
Bad Analogy
Example - “We have pure food and drug laws regulating what we put in our bodies; why can’t we have laws to keep musicians from giving us filth for the mind?”
Bad Analogy
Effect on the Text - it can damage the argument of the text.
Cliche Thinking
Definition - Using as evidence a well-known saying, as if it is proven, or as if it has no exceptions.
Cliche Thinking
Example - “I say: ‘America: love it or leave it.’ Anyone who disagrees with anything our country does must hate America. So maybe they should just move somewhere else.”
Cliche Thinking
Effect on the Text - They usually contribute nothing to the message you are trying to convey and will be viewed, by the reader, simply as padding.
False Cause
Definition - Assuming that because two things happened, the first one caused the second one.
False Cause
Example - “Before women got the vote, there were no nuclear weapons. Therefore women’s suffrage must have led to nuclear weapons.”
False Cause
Effect on the Text - makes the text very questioning.
Hasty Generalization
Definition - A generalization based on too little or unrepresentative data.
Hasty Generalization
Example - “My uncle didn’t go to college, and he makes a lot of money. So, people who don’t go to college do just as
well as those who do.”
Hasty Generalization
Effect on the Text - It is basically making a claim based on evidence that it just too small. Making the text feel rushed out.
Non Sequitur
Definition - A conclusion that does not follow from its premises; an invalid argument.
Non Sequitur
Example - “Hinduism is one of the world’s largest religious groups. It is also one of the world’s oldest religions. Hinduism helps millions of people lead happier, more productive lives. Therefore the principles of Hinduism must be true.”
Non Sequitur
Effect on the Text - to heighten the comedic elements of a literary work, especially in theatrical plays and humorous writing.
Slippery Slope
Definition - The assumption that once started, a situation will continue to its most extreme possible outcome.
Slippery Slope
Example - “If you drink a glass of wine, then you’ll soon be drinking all the time, and then you’ll become a homeless alcoholic.”
Slippery Slope
Effect on the Text - a party asserts that a relatively small first step leads to a chain of related events culminating in some significant (usually negative) effect.
Inductive Argument
Definition - An argument in which it is thought that the premises provide reasons supporting the probable truth of the conclusion.
Inductive Argument
Example - A third marble from the bag is black. Therefore all the marbles in the bag are black.”
Inductive Argument
Effect on the Text - In an inductive argument, a rhetor (that is, a speaker or writer) collects a number of instances and forms a generalization that is meant to apply to all instances.
Sound Argument
Definition - A deductive argument is said to be sound if it meets two conditions: First, that the line of reasoning from the premises to the conclusion is valid. Second, that the premises are true.
Sound Argument
Example - All toasters are items made of gold. All items made of gold are time-travel devices. Therefore, all toasters are time-travel devices.
Sounds Argument
Effect on the Text - In other words, the premises are true and the conclusion necessarily follows from them, making the conclusion true as well.
Unstated Premises
Definition - Not every argument is fully expressed. Sometimes premises or even conclusions are left
unexpressed.
Unstated Premises
Example - Socrates is a human. If Socrates is a human, then Socrates is mortal. Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
Unstated Premises
Effect on the Text - Unstated premises are premises that a deductive argument requires, but are not explicitly stated.
Valid Argument
Definition - An argument is valid if the conclusion logically follows from the premises.
Valid Argument
Example - Either Elizabeth owns a Honda or she owns a Saturn.
Elizabeth does not own a Honda
Therefore, Elizabeth owns a Saturn.
Valid Argument
Effect on the Text - an argument that attempts to establish conclusive support for its conclusion.
