AP LANG AND COMP Flashcards
Active voice
The subject of the sentence performs the action.
Effect on text: tends to reveal or emphasize the actor of the sentence.
EX: Jerry knocked over the lamp.
Allusion
An indirect reference to something (usually a literary text, although it can be other things
commonly known, such as plays, songs, historical events) with which the reader is supposed to be familiar.
Effect on text : The literary device is used to enhance the text, often by making it more relatable to the reader or by illustrating either an example or the text’s overarching theme.
Example: “Chocolate cake is my Achilles heel.”
Anecdote
A brief recounting of a relevant episode. Anecdotes are often inserted into fictional or non
fictional texts as a way of developing a point or injecting humor.
Example: f a group of coworkers are discussing pets, and one coworker tells a story about how her cat comes downstairs at only a certain time of the night, then that one coworker has just told an anecdote.
Effect on text ; often provide insight into how an issue has affected someone’s life. They give a human face to facts and figures, bringing credibility to an argument by showing the events or experiences that led a writer to form their opinion.
Antecedent
The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun.
Example of Antecedent: David plays football in the courtyard.
Diction
Word choice, particularly as an element of style. Different types of words have significant effects
on meaning.
Example: We would not address a stranger in the same way as a good friend, and we would not address a boss in that same way as a child.
Effect on text: To evoke specific emotions in his/her audience.
Colloquial
Ordinary or familiar type of conversation.
Examples of Colloquial - “There’s more than one way to skin a cat” and “He needs to step up to the plate.”
Effect on text: tell readers about the regional area of a character or the setting of a text.
Connotation
Rather than the dictionary definition (denotation), the associations suggested by a
word. Implied meaning rather than literal meaning.
Example, “policeman,” “cop,” and “The
Man” all denote the same literal meaning of police officer, but each has a different connotation.)
Connotation
Rather than the dictionary definition (denotation), the associations suggested by a
word. Implied meaning rather than literal meaning.
Example, “policeman,” “cop,” and “The
Man” all denote the same literal meaning of police officer, but each has a different connotation.)
Effect on text:
Understanding the connotations of words can enhance description, meaning, and tone.
Denotation
The literal, explicit meaning of a word, without its connotations.
Examples of denotation: She was cold
Denotation effect on text:
Used when an author wants the reader to understand a word, phrase, or sentence in its literal form, without other implied, associated, or suggested meanings.
Jargon
The diction used by a group which practices a similar profession or activity.
Example of jargon: AWOL: Short for “absent without leave,” AWOL is military jargon used to describe a person whose whereabouts are unknown.
Effect of jargon on text: meant to enhance communication by simplifying a particular concept.
Vernacular
- Language or dialect of a particular country. 2. Language or dialect of a regional
clan or group. 3. Plain everyday speech
Vernacular effect on text : the use of vernacular helps show settings and characters.
Vernacular ex: The word “y’all” is a very common vernacular term in the American South
Didactic
A term used to describe fiction, nonfiction or poetry that teaches a specific lesson or moral or
provides a model of correct behavior or thinking.
Example of didactic : Every textbook and “how-to” book is an example of didacticism
Didactic effect on text : text is one that teaches and instructs, and originally.
Adage
A folk saying with a lesson.
Adage ex: “Things are not always what they seem.”
Adages effect on text: Writers tend to use adages to communicate a particular message to readers.
Allegory
A story, fictional or non fictional, in which characters, things, and events represent
qualities or concepts.
Allegory ex: Animal Farm, by George Orwell. On its surface, Animal Farm is a story about farm animals that rebel against their farmer. The underlying story, however, concerns Orwell’s disillusionment with the Bolshevik Revolution and is an indictment of the Russian government.
Allegory effect on text: Allegory allows writers to create some distance between themselves and the issues they are discussing, especially when those issues are strong critiques of political or societal realities.
Aphorism
A terse statement which expresses a general truth or moral principle. An aphorism
can be a memorable summation of the author’s point.
Aphorism effect on text: Writers and speakers can teach universal truths to audiences, allowing them to relate to the world around them and the words of the writer.
EX: Actions speak louder than words.
Ellipsis
The deliberate omission of a word or phrase from prose done for effect by the author.
Ellipsis effect on text : decreasing the amount of text displayed.
Ellipsis ex: “The whole
day, rain, torrents of rain.”
Euphemism
A more agreeable or less offensive substitute for generally unpleasant words or concepts.
Sometimes they are used for political correctness.
Euphemism Ex: “Physically challenged,” in place of “crippled.”
Sometimes a euphemism is used to exaggerate correctness to add humor. “Vertically challenged”
Euphemism effect on text : Are often used ironically for comedic effect.
Figurative Language
Writing that is not meant to be taken literally.
Figurative Language ex:
The warrior has a heart of stone.
Love is a battlefield.
Baby, you are my sunshine.
Figurative Language effect on text: transforms ordinary descriptions into evocative events, enhance the emotional significance of passages, and turn prose into a form of poetry.
Analogy
An analogy is a comparison of one pair of variables to a parallel set of variables.
Analogy ex: “She’s as blind as a bat.” “
Analogy effect on text: makes connections between familiar and unfamiliar things, suggest a deeper significance, or create imagery in the reader’s mind.
Hyperbole
Exaggeration.
Hyperbole: “My mother will kill me if I am late.”
Hyperbole effect on text: the use of over-exaggeration to emphasize a point or to be humorous.
Idiom
A common, often used expression that doesn’t make sense if you take it literally.
Idiom ex: “I got
chewed out by my coach.”
Idiom effect on text: amplify messages in a way that draws readers in and helps to awaken their senses.
Metaphor
Making an implied comparison, not using “like,” as,” or other such words.
Metaphor ex: “My feet
are popsicles.”
Metaphor effect on text: Elicits analogical transfer in people, so that readers abstract the entailments of the metaphor and apply them to their interpretation of the literal situation.
Metonymy
Replacing an actual word or idea, with a related word or concept.
Metonymy ex: “Relations
between London and Washington have been strained,”
metonymy effects on text: enhances literary symbolism.
Synecdoche
A kind of metonymy when a whole is represented by naming one of its
parts, or vice versa.
Synecdoche ex: “The cattle rancher owned 500 head.”
Synecdoche effect on text: allows for variation of expression and produces an effect for the reader.
Simile
Using words such as “like” or “as” to make a direct comparison between two very
different things.
Simile ex: “My feet are so cold they feel like popsicles.”
Simile effect on text: Similes can make our language more descriptive and enjoyable.
Imagery
Word or words that create a picture in the reader’s mind. Usually this involves the five senses.
Imagery ex: The autumn leaves are a blanket on the ground.
Imagery effect on text: By using imagery, writers can evoke the feeling they want to talk about in their readers.
Invective
A long, emotionally violent, attack using strong, abusive language.
Invective ex: Invective is harsh, abusive language, like “you dirty rotten scoundrel.”
Invective effect on text: , to reiterate the significance of the deeply felt emotions of the writer.
Irony
When the opposite of what you expect to happen does.
Irony ex: Telling a quiet group, “don’t speak all at once”
Irony effect on text: n works of fiction, it is often used for the amusement of the audience or reader, and in nonfiction it is used for emphasizing an important point or idea.
Verbal irony
When you say something and mean the opposite/something different.
Verbal irony ex: if your gym teacher wants you to run a mile in eight minutes or faster, but calls it a “walk in the
park”
Verbal irony effect on text: Verbal irony often brings levity to a situation, exposes double entendres or pokes fun at a situation.
Dramatic irony
When the audience of a drama, play, movie, etc. knows something that the character doesn’t and would be surprised to find out.
Dramatic irony Ex: example, in many horror movies, we (the
audience) know who the killer is, which the victim-to-be has no idea who is doing the slaying.
Sometimes the character trusts the killer completely when (ironically) he/she shouldn’t.
Dramatic irony effect on text: By allowing the audience to know important facts ahead of the leading characters, dramatic irony puts the audience and readers above the characters, and also encourages them to anticipate, hope, and fear the moment when a character would learn the truth behind events and situations of the story.
Situational irony
Found in the plot (or story line) of a book, story, or movie.
Situational irony ex: A fire station burns down
Situational irony effect on text: let readers distinguish between expectation and reality. This can help make the story, character, or theme more relatable to readers, because real life does not always unfold as expected.
Juxtaposition
Placing things side by side for the purposes of comparison. Authors often use juxtaposition
of ideas or examples in order to make a point.
Juxtaposition ex: example, an author my juxtapose the average day of a typical American with that of someone in the third world in order to make a point of social commentary).
Juxtaposition effect on text: is a literary device that implies comparison or contrast.
Mood
The atmosphere created by the literature and accomplished through word choice (diction).
Mood ex: Anxious Calm Cheerful
Mood effects on text:
The mood creates an emotional response in the audience and allows for greater understanding of what the author is saying.
Oxymoron
When apparently contradictory terms are grouped together and suggest a paradox.
Oxymoron ex: “wise
fool”
Oxymoron effect on text: supports a lighthearted mood or tone, as well as emphasize conflict.
Pacing
The speed or tempo of an author’s writing.
Pacing Ex : words. An author’s pacing can be fast, sluggish, stabbing, vibrato, staccato, measured, etc.
Pacing effects on text: affects the mood of your story, helps develop ideas and themes, and allows your readers to connect to the characters and the events that surround them.
Paradox
A seemingly contradictory situation which is actually true.
Paradox ex: .“You can’t get a job without experience, and you can’t get experience without getting a job.”
In literature, paradoxes can elicit humor, illustrate themes, and provoke readers to think critically.
Parallelism
(Also known as parallel structure or balanced sentences.) Sentence construction which
places equal grammatical constructions near each other, or repeats identical grammatical patterns.
Parallelism ex: “Cinderella swept the floor, dusted the mantle, and beat the rugs.”
Parallelism effect on text : This structure improves readability by giving a natural flow to a written work.
Anaphora
Repetition of a word, phrase, or clause at the beginning of two or more sentences or
clauses in a row.
Anaphora ex : “I came, I saw, I conquered.”
Anaphora effect on text: his rhetorical device adds emphasis to ideas and can generate emotion as well as inspire the reader.
Chiasmus
When the same words are used twice in succession, but the second time, the order of
the words is reversed.
Chiasmus ex: “Fair is foul and foul is fair.”
Chiasmus effect on text: the reversing of the order of words in the second of two parallel phrases or sentences.
Antithesis
Two opposite or contrasting words, phrases, or clauses, or even ideas, with parallel
structure.
Antithesis ex: “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times”
Antithesis effect on text: highlights the stark difference between opposing ideas by placing them side-by-side in exactly the same structure.
Zuegma (Syllepsis)
When a single word governs or modifies two or more other words, and the meaning of the first word must change for each of the other words it governs or modifies.
Zuegma ex : “The butler killed the lights, and then the mistress.”
Zuegma effect on text: Zeugmas will either confuse the reader or inspire them to think more deeply
Parenthetical Idea
Parentheses are used to set off an idea from the rest of the sentence. It is almost
considered an aside…a whisper, and should be used sparingly for effect, rather than repeatedly.
Parenthetical Idea ex: “In a short time (and the time is getting shorter by the gallon) America will be out of oil.”
Parenthetical Idea effect on text: Parentheses are used to enclose incidental or extra information, such as a passing comment, a minor example or addition, or a brief explanation.
Persona
The fictional mask or narrator that tells a story. Do not confuse with alter-ego.
Persona ex: We think about William Blake writing in the voice of a young chimney sweeper, or Sylvia Plath writing in the voice of Lady Lazarus, or Gwendolyn Brooks writing in the voice of teenagers who have skipped school to play pool at a bar.
Persona effect on text: To create reliable and realistic representations of your key audience segments for reference.
Polysyndeton
When a writer creates a list of items which are all separated by conjunctions. Normally, a conjunction is used only before the last item in a list.
Polysyndeton ex : “I walked the dog, and fed the cat, and milked the cows.”
Polysyndeton effect on text: purposely overwhelm the reader.
Pun
When a word that has two or more meanings is used in a humorous way.
Pun ex: “My dog has a fur coat and pants!”
Pun effect on text: Makes text have a lighter mood.
Rhetoric
Rhetoric ex: Politicians deliver rallying cries to inspire people to act. Advertisers create catchy slogans to get people to buy products. Lawyers present emotional arguments to sway a jury. These are all examples of rhetoric—language designed to motivate, persuade, or inform
Rhetoric effect on text: Rhetorical situations affect the meaning of a text because it may have been written for a specific audience, in a specific place, and during a specific time.
Rhetorical Question
Question not asked for information but for effect.
Rhetorical Question ex : “The angry parent asked the child, ‘Are you finished interrupting me?’”
Rhetorical Question effect on text: to make a point or convey an effect
Sarcasm
A generally bitter comment that is ironically or satirically worded. However, not all satire and
irony are sarcastic. It is the bitter, mocking tone that separates sarcasm from mere verbal irony or satire.
Sarcasm ex: “they’re really on top of things” to describe a group of people who are very disorganized is using sarcasm.
Sarcasm effect on text:
Sarcasm is a literary device that uses irony to mock someone or something or convey contempt.
Satire
A work that reveals a critical attitude toward some element of life to a humorous effect. It targets
human vices and follies, or social institutions and conventions. Good satire usually has three layers: serious on the surface; humorous when you discover that it is satire instead of reality; and serious when you discern
the underlying point of the author.
Satire ex: political cartoons–satirize political events and/or politicians.
Satire effect on text: has the ability to protect its creator from culpability for criticism, because it is implied rather than overtly stated
Sentence
A sentence is group of words (including subject and verb) that expresses a complete thought.
Sentence ex: “ I am walking the dog.”
Sentence effect on a text: without sentences there would be no text.
Appositive
A word or group of words placed beside a noun or noun substitute to supplement its
meaning.
Appositive ex: “Bob, the lumber yard worker, spoke with Judy, an accountant from the city.”
Appositive effect on text : Appositives are used to reduce wordiness, add detail, and add syntactic variety to a sentence.
Clause
A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. An independent clause
expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent, or subordinate
clause cannot stand alone as a sentence and must be accompanied by an independent clause.
Clause ex: “Other than baseball, football is my favorite sport.” In this sentence, the independent
clause is “football is my favorite sport” and the dependent clause is “Other than baseball.”
Clause effect on text: a clause conveys information about what that subject is or is doing, rather than simply being a random grouping of words. so basically without clauses the sentences wouldn’t make sense.
Balanced sentence
A sentence in which two parallel elements are set off against each
other like equal weights on a scale. Both parts are parallel grammatically.
Balanced sentence ex: grammatically. “If a free
society cannot help the many who are poor, it cannot save the few who are rich.”
Balanced sentence effect on sentence: A balanced sentence gives rhythmical flow to the text. It draws attention of the readers to the sentence and makes it stand out among the rest.
Compound sentence
Contains at least two independent clauses but no dependent
clauses.
Compound sentence ex: Nancy was out of oil, so she went to the grocery store.
Compound sentence effect on text: all about bringing ideas together or showing how those ideas relate to one another.
Complex sentence
Contains only one independent clause and at least one dependent
clause.
Complex sentence ex: Because he was late again, he would be docked a day’s pay.
Complex sentence effect on text: a complex sentence the two ideas can be combined in a way that shows their cause-and-effect relationship.
Cumulative sentence
(also called a loose sentence) When the writer begins with an
independent clause, then adds subordinate elements.
Cumulative sentence ex: “He doubted whether he could ever
again appear before an audience, his confidence broken, his limbs shaking, his collar wet
with perspiration.”
Cumulative sentence effect on text:
A cumulative sentence (also sometimes called a loose sentence) is an independent clause followed by one or more modifiers. Essentially, you use words, phrases, and clauses to expand on or refine the main idea of the sentence. The effect can be natural as it parallels what often happens in speech.
Periodic sentence
When the main idea is not completed until the end of the sentence.
The writer begins with subordinate elements and postpones the main clause.
Periodic sentence ex: “His
confidence broken, his limbs shaking, his collar wet with perspiration, he doubted
whether he could ever again appear before an audience.”
Periodic sentence effect on text: Often produces a dramatic tension and suspense to the main point at the end of the sentence.
Simple sentence
Contains only one independent clause.
Simple sentence ex: Joe waited for the train.
Simple sentence effect on text: When it comes to communicating, sometimes less is more. Think of the importance of sentence structure – short, simple sentences or truncated sentences can create tension, haste or urgency, whereas longer compound or complex sentences are slower, and often feature in formal texts.
Declarative sentence
States an idea. It does not give a command or request, nor does it
ask a question.
Declarative sentence ex: “The ball is round.”
Declaritive sentence effect on text: make a statement that simply gives the facts or an opinion and end in a period.
Imperative sentence
Issues a command.
Imperative sentence ex: “Kick the ball.”
Imperative sentence effect on text: Imperative sentences are used to issue a command or instruction, make a request, or offer advice. Basically, they tell people what to do.
Interrogative sentence
Sentences incorporating interrogative pronouns (what, which,
who, whom, and whose).
Interrogative sentence ex: “To whom did you kick the ball?”
Imperative sentence effect on text: An imperative sentence is a sentence that gives the reader an instruction, makes a request, or issues a command.
Style
The choices in diction, tone, and syntax that a writer makes. Style may be conscious or unconscious.
Style ex: The four main types of writing styles are persuasive, narrative, expository, and descriptive.
Style effect on text: style influences the reader’s impression of the information itself. Style includes diction and tone.
Symbol
Anything that represents or stands for something else. Usually a symbol is something concrete such as an object, actions, character…that represents something more abstract.
Symbol ex: Examples of symbols
include the Whale in Moby Dick,
Symbol effect on text:Helps readers visualize complex concepts and follow central themes. Affords writers the chance to relate big ideas in an efficient, artful way.
Syntax/sentence variety
Grammatical arrangement of words. This is perhaps one of the most difficult
concepts to master. First, a reader should examine the length of sentences (short or long). How does
sentence length and structure relate to tone and meaning.
Syntax/sentence variety ex: The sky is blue. Example: Blue skies like these make my day. There isn’t a cloud in the sky. It’s a clear day.
Syntax/sentence variety effect the text: Adding sentence variety to prose can give it life and rhythm. Too many sentences with the same structure and length can grow monotonous for readers. Varying sentence style and structure can also reduce repetition and add emphasis.
Theme
The central idea or message of a work. The theme may be directly stated in nonfiction works,
although not necessarily. It is rarely stated directly in fiction.
Theme ex: Some common themes in literature are “love,” “war,” “revenge,” “betrayal,” “patriotism,” “grace,” “isolation,” “motherhood,”
Theme effect on text: The theme of a story is important because a story’s theme is part of the reason why the author wrote the story.
Thesis
The sentence or groups of sentences that directly expresses the author’s opinion, purpose, meaning,
or proposition. It should be short and clear.
Thesis ex: f you’re writing a seven-to-ten page paper on hunger, you might say: World hunger has many causes and effects. This is a weak thesis statement for two major reasons. First, world hunger can’t be discussed thoroughly in seven to ten pages.
Thesis effect on text:
The thesis states what the writer sees as the main cause, main effect, or various causes and effects of a condition or event.
Tone
A writer’s attitude toward his subject matter revealed through diction, figurative language and
organization. To identify tone, consider how the piece would sound if read aloud (or how the author wanted
it to sound aloud).
Tone Ex: Tone can be: playful, serious, businesslike, sarcastic, humorous, formal, somber, etc.
Understatement
The ironic minimizing of fact, understatement presents something as less significant
than it is. The effect can frequently be humorous.
Understatement ex: “Our defense played valiantly, and held the other team to
merely eight touchdowns in the first quarter.”
Understatement effect on the text: From understatement the reader can derive great pleasure and satisfaction.
Litotes
A particular form of understatement, generated by denying the opposite of the statement which otherwise would be used. Depending on the tone and context of the usage, litotes either retains the effect of understatement.
Litotes ex: (Hitting that telephone pole certainly didn’t do your car any
good) or becomes an intensifying expression (The flavors of the mushrooms, herbs, and spices
combine to make the dish not at all disagreeable).
Litotes effect on text: causes the listener to think and consider the statement.
Argument
An argument is a piece of reasoning with one or more premises and a conclusion. Essentially,
every essay is an argument that begins with the conclusion (the thesis) and then sets up the
premises. An argument (or the thesis to an argument) is also sometimes called a claim, a position,
or a stance.
Argument ex:For example, the subject of an argument might be, “The internet is a good invention.” Then, we support this contention with logical reasons, such as “It is a source of endless information,” and “It is a hub of entertainment,” and so on.
Argument effect the text: Argumentation aims to gain adherence from an audience.
Premises
Statements offered as reasons to support a conclusion are premises.
Premises ex: For example, if a person looks at a green apple and says, “this apple is sour,” the premises of this argument could be: 1) Green apples are sour.
Premises effect the text: A premise is a statement in an argument that provides reason or support for the conclusion. There can be one or many premises in a single argument.
Conclusion
A conclusion is the end result of the argument – the main point being made. In an
argument one expects that the conclusion will be supported with reasons or premises. Moreover,
these premises will be true and will, in fact, lead to the conclusion.
Conclusion ex: Your conclusion gives your reader something to take away that will help them see things differently or appreciate your topic in personally relevant ways.
Conclusion effect the text: Your conclusion gives your reader something to take away that will help them see things differently or appreciate your topic in personally relevant ways.
Aristotle’s appeals
The goal of argumentative writing is to persuade an audience that one’s ideas are valid, or more
valid than someone else’s. The Greek philosopher Aristotle divided all means of persuasion
(appeals) into three categories - ethos, pathos, and logos.
Aristotle’s appeals ex: logos, ethos, and pathos.
Ethos
Ethos (credibility) means being convinced by the credibility of the author. We tend to
believe people whom we respect. In an appeal to ethos, a writer tries to convince the
audience the he or she someone worth listening to, in other words an authority on the
subject, as well as someone who is likable and worthy of respect.
Ethos ex: As a doctor, I am qualified to tell you that this course of treatment will likely generate the best results.
Ethos effect on text: Ethos appeals to the writer’s character. Ethos can also be thought of as the role of the writer in the argument, and how credible his/her argument is.
Pathos
(emotional) means persuading by appealing to the reader’s emotions. (Also see
the fallacy of appeal to emotion). An argument that relies too much on emotion, without
any corroborating logos, can become a fallacy.
Pathos ex: A teenager tries to convince his parents to buy him a new car by saying if they cared about their child’s safety they’d upgrade him.
Patos effect on text: Pathos is an appeal made to an audience’s emotions in order to evoke feeling.
Logos
(logical) means persuading by the use of reasoning, using true premises and valid
arguments. This is generally considered the strongest form of persuasion.
Logos ex: Logos is when we use cold arguments – like data, statistics, or common sense – to convince people of something, rather than trying to appeal to an audience’s emotions. Here’s an example of logos in action from our man Aristotle himself: All men are mortal. Socrates is a man
Logos effect on text: Logos can also be thought of as the text of the argument, as well as how well a writer has argued his/her point.
Concession
Accepting at least part or all of an opposing viewpoint. Often used to make one’s own argument
stronger by demonstrating that one is willing to accept what is obviously true and reasonable, even
if it is presented by the opposition.
Consession ex: A teenager arguing to her parents that she needs a cell phone makes the following concession: I know that you think I will just use the phone to text during class and call friends instead of doing homework. Could we agree to let me try the phone for a month, and if I do these things, you can take the phone away?
Consession effect on text: Concession is an argumentative strategy by which a speaker or writer acknowledges the validity of an opponent’s point.
Conditional Statement
A conditional statement is an if-then statement and consists of two parts, an antecedent and a
consequent.
Conditional Statement ex: “If you studied hard, then you will pass the test.”
Conditional Statement effect on text: We then use a conditional statement to show different text inside the paragraph depending on what the value of choice is.
Contradiction
A contradiction occurs when one asserts two mutually exclusive propositions,
Contradiction ex: “Abortion
Contradiction effects on text:
The use of contractions is directly related to tone. In informal writing (from text messages and blogs to memos and personal essays), we often rely on contractions to maintain a colloquial tone.
Counterexample
A counterexample is an example that runs counter to (opposes) a generalization, thus falsifying it.
Premise: Jane argued that all whales are endangered.
Premise: Belugas are a type of whale.
Premise: Belugas are not endangered.
Conclusion: Therefore, Jane’s argument is unsound.
Counter exampleeffect on text : Counterexamples are also useful in disproving the validity of an argument. An argument is valid when the conclusion cannot be false if all the premises are true.
