AP I C3 Flashcards
what is cell theory?
A. Cell Theory=developed by three scientists (Schleiden, Schwann, and Virchow)
1. Cells are the building blocks of all plants and animals.
2. All new cells come from the division of pre-existing cells.
3. Cells are the smallest units that perform all vital physiological functions.
4. Complementarity of Form and Function=functions are dictated by which subcellular structures are present in the cell.
what is cytology?
the study of cells
Although cells vary widely in____,___,___.
they are all _____of a___cell: the ___ ____.
At fertilization, the fertilized ovum – which is very large – contains the _____ _____ to become any ___ in the body.
size, shape, and function,
descendants
single
fertilized ovum
genetic potential
cell
As cellular division occurs, the cytoplasm is _____ into ____ ____. These ____ differ from one another because there were _____ ______ in the ____ of the _____ at ____.
The cytoplasmic differences ____ the ___ of the cells, ____ _____ _____ ___ or ___. The daughter cells begin to develop _____ ____ and _____ characteristics. This process of ____specialization is called differentiation.
Differentiation _____ the _____ ___ that form the ____responsible for___ body functions.
subdivided
smaller parcels
parcels
regional differences
position
cytoplasm
fertilization
affect
DNA
turning specific genes
on or off
specialized structural and functional
gradual
differentiation
produces
specialized cells
tissues
all
Cells are the ____ ____ ___of life.
smallest living units
Organelles: ____ _______ that have ____ functions. There are two types of organelles.
i.Membranous organelles – ____ ___the cytosol by a _________ _____ (just as the plasma membrane isolates the _____ from the ______). Includes: ______,_______,______, ______,______,_____
ii. Non-membranous organelles – _______ ______ _____by a membrane so that all of their components are in _____ _____ ___ ___ ____ Includes: ____,____,____,____,____,____
intracellular structures
specific
isolated from
phospholipid membrane
cytosol
extracellular fluid
mitochondria, nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and peroxisomes.
not completely enclosed
direct contact with the cytosol
cytoskeleton, centrioles, microvilli, cilia, flagella, and ribosomes
Proteins:______ _______ the phospholipid bilayer there are ___ types of proteins that are______ ____ ______ ______:
a. ______ proteins are ____ ___ ___ membrane structure and cannot be removed without ______ ___ ____ the membrane. Most integral proteins pass all the way through the membrane one or more times and are therefore known as _____ proteins. Some contain ____ __ _____ through which ___ and ____ ___ ___.
b._____proteins are_____ ____ ___ ___ ___ ___ of the membrane and are ____ ____ ___ it. Integral proteins greatly _____ peripheral proteins.
c. _____ ____ of membrane proteins:
i. _____ proteins – _____ ____ _____ to other structures and ____its _____. _____ the cell, membrane proteins are _____ to the _____.
ii. _____ proteins –____ by cells of the_____ _____. _______ in the plasma membranes may be _____ or _____ proteins.
iii. _____ proteins – ___ to specific_____ molecules called ____. A ligand can be anything from a small ion like calcium, to a relatively___ and _____ hormone.
iv. ____ proteins – ___ solutes and____ them across the plasma membrane.
v.Channels – are____ ____ containing a ____ ___ (or channel) that forms a _______ completely ____ the plasma membrane. The channel permits the passage of _____ and ____ _____that cannot otherwise cross the lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane.
scattered throughout
two
important to membrane function
Integral
part of the
damaging or destroying
transmembrane
channels or pores
water
solutes may pass.
Peripheral
bound to the inner or outer surface
easily separated from
outnumber
Functional classes
Anchoring
attach the plasma membrane
stabilize
position
Inside
bound
cytoskeleton
Recognition
detected
immune system
Enzymes
integral or peripheral
Receptor
bind
extracellular
ligands
large and complex hormone
Carrier
bind
transport
integral proteins
central pore
passageway
across
water and small solutes
- Glycocalyx – ____of superficial membrane carbohydrates. Carbohydrates account for roughly ___of the weight of the plasma membrane. The glycocalyx is important in ____ _____, binding to _____ ______, and _____ of the ____ ____.
Cholesterols – are important _____ that helps to _____ the _____ ____ plasma membrane.
B. The plasma membrane is a ___ ____ that separates the___ of the cell from the ____ ____. It is a selectively permeable barrier that ____ ___ ___ of ___ and ____ (such as ___), the____ of wastes, and the ____ of secretions.
layer
3%
cell recognition
extracellular structures
lubrication
cell surface
lipid
stabilize
relatively weak
physical barrier
inside
surrounding fluid
controls the entry
ions and nutrients
glucose
elimination
release
C. How Things Enter and Leave the Cell
1. Because the plasma membrane is an effective barrier, the conditions inside the cell are ______than the conditions outside the cell. However, the barrier cannot be ____ because cells are not ____-___ and their activities ____ _____ _______. Instead plasma membranes ______ _______.
a. Freely permeable membranes = ____ any substance to pass without _____
b. Selectively permeable membranes = ____the passage of some materials and ____the passage of others.
c. Impermeable membranes = ___ can pass through. Cells may be impermeable to specific substances, but ___ ___ ___has an impermeable membrane.
2. Passive transport processes= ____require ____because particles are moving ____the concentration gradient.
a. Simple diffusion=the ____ __ ____ through a selectively permeable membrane from an area of ____solute concentration to an area of ___solute concentration.
i. Solutes are the ____ _____ in a solution, while the solvent is the ____ that the solutes ___ into. Remember, water is the ____ solvent.
ii. many factors influence diffusion rates: ____,_____,____,____,_____
b.______ diffusion=some molecules are __ big to fit through the spaces between the _____ and therefore require an _____ _____, also known as a ___ _____ to ____ ___across the membrane. This type of transport is a ____ ____ ____ but DOES NOT REQUIRE ___.
c. Osmosis=the ____ ___ ____ through a selectively permeable membrane from an area of ____ water concentration to an area of ____ water concentration.
i. The ____ the____ ____ in solute concentrations, the _____the osmotic flow. The osmotic pressure of a solution is an indication of the force with which ___water moves ____ the solution as a result of its solute concentration.
ii. Both osmosis and diffusion are based on the _____ of the solution _____ the cell. Osmolarity is the ____concentration of the solution, and the ___ of the ___ on the cell is its _____.
iii. Tonicity may have ___ __ _____ effects on a cell:
a. Isotonic=__solute concentration in the solution than in the cell. (NO NET MOVEMENT resulting in normal animal cell shape)
b. Hypertonic=___ solute concentration in the solution than in the cell. (solvent would MOVE __causing animal cells to crenate)
c. Hypotonic=____solute concentration in the solution than in the cell (solvent would MOVE___causing animal cells to lyse)
d. Filtration= ____ movement of substances because of a_____ _____.
3. Active processes= do ____ energy!!
a. Active transport=similar to facilitated diffusion because it too ____ ____ ____ however it differs in that it requires ____and is NOT dependent on concentration gradients. Therefore, substances can be pumped into and out of the cell regardless of ______ ______. Most common example is the_____ _____ _____.
b. Secondary active transport=by moving _____ ____the membrane, energy is _____to pump glucose ____ its gradient.
c. Vesicular transport=____ _____,_____, and ___are transported ____the plasma and_______membranes:
i. Exocytosis=moving substances ___of the cell.
ii. Endocytosis=moving substances ____the cell.
a. Phagocytosis= “cell____”.
b. Pinocytosis= “cell ___”.
different
absolute
self-sufficient
must be coordinated
demonstrate permeability
allow
difficulty
permit
prevent
nothing
no living cell
do not
energy
down
movement of solutes
high
low
dissolved particles
substance
dissolve
Universal
distance, molecule size, temperature, gradient size, and electrical forces.
Facilitated
too
phospholipids
integral protein
carrier protein
ferry them
carrier-mediated process
ATP
diffusion of water
higher
lower
greater
initial difference
stronger
pure
into
osmolarity
surrounding
solute
effect
solution
tonicity
one of three
same
higher
lower
OUT
IN
“bulk flow”
pressure gradient
require
requires carrier proteins
ATP
concentration gradients
sodium-potassium pump
sodium across
stored
against
large particles
macromolecules
fluids
across
intracellular
out
into
eating
drinking
C. How Things Enter and Leave the Cell
1. Because the plasma membrane is an effective barrier, the conditions inside the cell are ______than the conditions outside the cell. However, the barrier cannot be ____ because cells are not ____-___ and their activities ____ _____ _______. Instead plasma membranes ______ _______.
a. Freely permeable membranes = ____ any substance to pass without _____
b. Selectively permeable membranes = ____the passage of some materials and ____the passage of others.
c. Impermeable membranes = ___ can pass through. Cells may be impermeable to specific substances, but ___ ___ ___has an impermeable membrane.
2. Passive transport processes= ____require ____because particles are moving ____the concentration gradient.
a. Simple diffusion=the ____ __ ____ through a selectively permeable membrane from an area of ____solute concentration to an area of ___solute concentration.
i. Solutes are the ____ _____ in a solution, while the solvent is the ____ that the solutes ___ into. Remember, water is the ____ solvent.
ii. many factors influence diffusion rates: ____,_____,____,____,_____
b.______ diffusion=some molecules are __ big to fit through the spaces between the _____ and therefore require an _____ _____, also known as a ___ _____ to ____ ___across the membrane. This type of transport is a ____ ____ ____ but DOES NOT REQUIRE ___.
c. Osmosis=the ____ ___ ____ through a selectively permeable membrane from an area of ____ water concentration to an area of ____ water concentration.
i. The ____ the____ ____ in solute concentrations, the _____the osmotic flow. The osmotic pressure of a solution is an indication of the force with which ___water moves ____ the solution as a result of its solute concentration.
ii. Both osmosis and diffusion are based on the _____ of the solution _____ the cell. Osmolarity is the ____concentration of the solution, and the ___ of the ___ on the cell is its _____.
iii. Tonicity may have ___ __ _____ effects on a cell:
a. Isotonic=__solute concentration in the solution than in the cell. (NO NET MOVEMENT resulting in normal animal cell shape)
b. Hypertonic=___ solute concentration in the solution than in the cell. (solvent would MOVE __causing animal cells to crenate)
c. Hypotonic=____solute concentration in the solution than in the cell (solvent would MOVE___causing animal cells to lyse)
d. Filtration= ____ movement of substances because of a_____ _____.
3. Active processes= do ____ energy!!
a. Active transport=similar to facilitated diffusion because it too ____ ____ ____ however it differs in that it requires ____and is NOT dependent on concentration gradients. Therefore, substances can be pumped into and out of the cell regardless of ______ ______. Most common example is the_____ _____ _____.
b. Secondary active transport=by moving _____ ____the membrane, energy is _____to pump glucose ____ its gradient.
c. Vesicular transport=____ _____,_____, and ___are transported ____the plasma and_______membranes:
i. Exocytosis=moving substances ___of the cell.
ii. Endocytosis=moving substances ____the cell.
a. Phagocytosis= “cell____”.
b. Pinocytosis= “cell ___”.
different
absolute
self-sufficient
must be coordinated
demonstrate permeability
allow
difficulty
permit
prevent
nothing
no living cell
do not
energy
down
movement of solutes
high
low
dissolved particles
substance
dissolve
Universal
distance, molecule size, temperature, gradient size, and electrical forces.
Facilitated
too
phospholipids
integral protein
carrier protein
ferry them
carrier-mediated process
ATP
diffusion of water
higher
lower
greater
initial difference
stronger
pure
into
osmolarity
surrounding
solute
effect
solution
tonicity
one of three
same
higher
lower
OUT
IN
“bulk flow”
pressure gradient
require
requires carrier proteins
ATP
concentration gradients
sodium-potassium pump
sodium across
stored
against
large particles
macromolecules
fluids
across
intracellular
out
into
eating
drinking
The Cytoplasm and Cellular organization
A. Membranous organelles
1. Endoplasmic reticulum – or ER, is a ______ __ ___ _____connected to the _____ ____, which ___ the nucleus. There are two types of ER: rough and smooth.
a. Rough ER (RER) – rough because ____ numbers of ribosomes attached to its ___. Functions as a ____ ____and _____ ____. The RER is the site where newly constructed proteins are ____ ____ and _____ for____to the ____ _____.
b. Smooth ER (SER) – ____ ribosomes; has _____-____including synthesizing ___ and_____, synthesizing ____ ____, synthesizing and ____ _____, synthesizing and storing___.
2. Golgi apparatus – Composed of five to six flattened discs. Golgi apparatus ___or ____ the ____-____, modifies and packages ____ such as___ or ____ for release through _____, and packages ___-____ within ___ for __ in the ____. There are two types of ____-_____ formed by the___-____:
a. Lysosomes – special vesicles that provide an ___ environment for potentially ____ ____ reactions. These vesicles contain ____enzymes with a wide variety of functions.
b. Peroxisomes – special vesicle that ______-______organic compounds and ____ toxic compounds generated by the process. These vesicles contain _______-_______.
3. Mitochondria – the ____ of the cell; responsible for _____ _______. Mitochondria vary widely in ____, from long and slender to short and fat. All share basic features such as a ____-____ ____. The___-____ membrane is called the ____and increases the ____ ____-____ exposed to the matrix. The matrix is the ____ ____ by the ____membrane. ATP production is a multi-step process called _____-_____:
a. Glycolysis – ____molecules are broken down into two molecules of pyruvate. This reaction occurs in the ____ of animal cells and ____ ___ ATP molecules. The ___ molecules are ____-___ the mitochondria for steps two and three.
b. Citric acid cycle – in the___ of the mitochondria, a ___molecule is ___ from each ___; the remainder ___ the citric acid cycle, an ____-____ that systematically ___ ___ the absorbed ____ remnant into ____ and ____ ____. ___ ATP is produced in this step.
c. Electron transport system – The____ atoms are delivered to ____ and ____ of the ___ which catalyze the synthesis of ____ ____ATP. At the end of the process, oxygen combines with the ___ atoms to form ____ molecules.
network of intracellular membranes
nuclear envelope
surrounds
large
surface
combination workshop
shipping depot
chemically modified
packaged
export
golgi apparatus
lacks
numerous-functions
phospholipids and cholesterol
steroid hormones
storing glycerides
glycogen
renews
modifies
plasma-membrane
secretions
hormones or enzymes
exocytosis
special-enzymes
vesicles
use
cytosol
specialized-vesicles
golgi-apparatus
isolated
dangerous chemical
digestive
breaks-down
neutralizes
degradative-enzymes
powerhouses
ATP synthesis
shape
double-layered membrane
folded
internal
Cristae
internal surface-area
liquid enclosed
inner
Aerobic-Respiration
glucose
cytoplasm
creates two
pyruvate
absorbed-into
matrix
CO2
removed
pyruvate
enters
enzymatic-pathway
breaks down
pyruvate
carbon dioxide and hydrogen atoms
two
hydrogen
enzymes and coenzyme
cristae
32 additional
hydrogen
water
The Cytoplasm and Cellular organization
Non-membranous organelles
1. Cytoskeleton – functions as the cell’s skeleton. It provides an____-______made of ___ that gives the cytoplasm _____ and_____. The cytoplasm of all cells includes____,_____, and_____.
a. Microfilaments – the ___ of the ____-_____. These ___-____ are generally less than 6 nm in diameter. Typical microfilaments are composed of the protein ___. They are common in the cell’s periphery but relatively rare in the region immediately surrounding the nucleus.
b. ___filaments – range from 7 to 11 nm in diameter. These are the ____ and ___ ____ of the cytoskeleton elements. At least _ types of intermediate filaments are known.
c. Microtubules – are the___ components of the cytoskeleton with diameters of 25 nm. Microtubules ____ ____ ___ ___ _____ of the cell from a region near the nucleus called the _____.
2. Centrioles – are ___structures composed of ___-____. The microtubules form nine triplets connected to each other at the ___ centrioles located at the ___, and the ___ of the cytoskeleton generally begin at the centrosome and radiate through the cytoplasm. During cell division, the centrioles are associated with the formation of_____-____which move the strands of __ to the poles.
3. Cilia – long slender extensions composed of microtubules that extend from the____ ____ for the purpose of propelling ___ or ____. The long microtubules of cilia are arranged with nine doublets forming a _____ around a ___ ___ of ____.
4. Microvilli – ____-____ ____ of the plasma membrane. A core of microfilaments ____ each microvillus and anchors it to the cytoskeleton. Microvilli greatly _____the cell’s surface area and enhance its ability to ___ ___ from the extracellular fluid.
5. Ribosomes – are responsible for ___ ____ and are often attached to the_____-_____. The more protein a cell ____ the more____ it has. A functional ribosome consists of ____, ___small subunit and ____ large subunit.
internal framework
protein
strength
flexibility
microfilaments
intermediate filaments
microtubules
smallest
cytoskeleton-elements
protein-strands
actin
Intermediate
strongest
most durable
5
largest
extend outward into the periphery
centrosome
cylindrical-microtubules
Two
centrosome
microtubules
spindle fibers
DNA
cell’s surface
fluids or solids
cylinder
central pair of microtubules
finger-shaped extensions
stiffens
increase
absorb nutrients
protein synthesis
endoplasmic reticulum
synthesizes
ribosomes
two
one
A. Function of the Nucleus
1. The ____ is usually the largest and most conspicuous structure in a cell. The nucleus serves as the ____-____ for cellular operations.
2. A single nucleus ____ ___the information needed to direct the synthesis of more than ____ _____ _____in the human body. This genetic information is coded in the sequence of nucleotides in DNA.
3. By controlling what proteins are _____and when the nucleus determines the ___of the cell and what ______ it can perform.
4. Most cells contain a____nucleus, but exceptions _____. A cell without a ____ cannot repair itself, and it will disintegrate within ___or____ months.
nucleus
control-center
stores all
100,000 different proteins
synthesized
structure
functions
single
exist
nucleus
four
B. Structure of the nucleus
1. Nuclear envelope – _____the nucleus and _____ it from the cytoplasm. The nuclear envelope is a ____-______.
2. Nuclear pores – account for about___ of the ____ of the nucleus; serve as passageways that permit _____-______ between the nucleus and the cytosol. Proteins at the _____regulate the movement of ions and small molecules; neither ___ nor ___can _____cross the nuclear envelope.
3. Nucleoplasm – the ____ _____of the ____. The nucleoplasm contains the ____-____ a ___ of fine filaments that provide ____ _____and may be involved in the _____ of genetic activity. Also contains ions, enzymes, nucleotides, and small amounts of ___ and ___
4. Nucleoli – a transient nuclear organelle that synthesizes ribosomal RNA. They also assemble the ribosomal subunits. Nucleoli are most prominent in cells that manufacture large amounts of proteins, such as liver, nerve, and muscle cells.
5. DNA – stores the instructions for protein synthesis. In the nucleus of cells that are not dividing, DNA strands are loosely coiled around histones forming complexes known as nucleosomes. Nucleosomes twist to form filaments of chromatin. At the beginning of cell division, chromatin becomes more tightly coiled and complex forming a chromosome. A constricted region in the middle of the chromosome is called the centromere. In human cells, there are 46 chromosomes (23 from the mother and 23 from the father).
surrounds
separates
double-membrane
10%
surface
pores
chemical-communication
proteins
DNA
freely
fluid contents
nucleus
nuclear-matrix
network
structural support
regulation
RNA
DNA
