AP Government & Politics: Vocabulary Flashcards
Iron Triangle
An informal association of federal agency, congressional committee, and interest group that is said to have heavy influence over policy making.
Actual Group
That part of the potential group consisting of members who actually join.
Potential Group
Composed of all people who might be group members because they share a common interest.
Affirmative Action
A policy designed to give special attention to or compensatory treatment for members of some previously disadvantaged group.
Campaign Contributions
Donations that are made directly to a candidate or a party and that must be reported to the FEC.
Entitlements
Policies for which Congress has obligated itself to pay X level of benefits to Y number of recipients. (Example: Social Security benefits).
Judicial Restraint
An approach to decision making in which judges play minimal policy-making roles and defer to legislatures whenever possible.
Federalism
A way of organizing a nation so that two or more levels of government have formal authority over the same land and people. It is a system of shared power between units of government.
Open Primaries
Elections to select party nominees in which voters can decide on Election Day whether they want to participate in the Democratic or Republican contests.
Linkage Institutions
The political channels through which people’s concerns become political issues on the policy agenda. (Examples: elections, political parties, interest groups and the media).
Reapportionment
The process of reallocating seats in the House of Representatives every 10 years based of the results of the census.
Political Efficacy
The belief that one’s political participation really matters; that one’s vote can actually make a difference.
Whips
Party leaders who work with the majority leader or minority leader to count votes beforehand and lean on waverers whose votes are crucial to the passage of a bill favored by the party.
Virginia Plan
The proposal at the Constitutional Convention that called for representation of each state in Congress to be proportional to its population.
War Powers Resolution
A law passed in 1973 that requires presidents to consult with Congress whenever possible prior to using military force and to withdraw forces after 60 days unless Congress declares war or grants an extension.
Selective Exposure
The process through which people consciously choose to get the news from information sources that have viewpoints compatible with their own.
Ticket Splitting
Voting with one party for one office and with another party for other offices. Typical of independent voters.
Unemployment Rate
As measured by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the proportion of the labor force actively seeking work but unable to find jobs.
Policy Gridlock
A condition that occurs when interests conflict and no coalition is strong enough to form a majority and establish policy, so nothing gets done.
Mandate Theory of Elections
The idea that the winning candidate has a mandate from the people to carry out his or her platforms and politics. (Politicians like the theory better than political scientists do.)
Natural Rights
Rights inherent in human beings, not dependent on governments, which include life, liberty, and property. The concept of natural rights was central to English philosopher John Locke’s theories about government and was widely accepted among America’s Founders.
Log-Rolling
The practice of exchanging favors, especially in politics, when politicians agree to vote for one other’s respective legislation.
Electioneering
Direct group involvement in the electoral process, for example, by helping to fund campaigns, getting members to work for candidates, and forming political action committees.
Direct Mail
A method of raising money for a political cause or candidate, in which information and requests for money are sent to people whose names appear on lists of those who have supported similar views or candidates in the past.
Categorical Grants
Federal grants that can be used only for specific purposes, or “categories,” of state and local spending. They come with strings attached, such as nondiscrimination provisions.
Appellate Jurisdiction
The jurisdiction of courts that hear cases brought to them on appeal from lower courts. These courts do not review the factual record, only the legal issues involved.
Bicameral Legislature
A legislature divided into two houses. The U.S. Congress and all state legislatures except Nebraska’s are bicameral.
527 Groups
Independent political groups that are not subject to contribution restrictions because they do not directly seek the election of particular candidates. Section 527 of the tax code specifies that contributions to such groups must be reported to the IRS.
Motor Voter Act
A 1993 act that requires states to permit people to register to vote when they apply for a driver’s license.
Laissez-Faire
The principle that government should not meddle in the economy.
National Security Council
The committee that links the president’s foreign and military policy advisers. Its formal members are the president, vice president, secretary of state, and secretary of defense, and it is managed by the president’s national security assistant.
Majority Leader
The principal partisan ally of the Speaker of the House or the party’s manager in the Senate. The majority leader is responsible for scheduling bills, influencing committee assignments, and rounding up votes in behalf of the party’s legislative positions.
Party Machines
A type of political party organization that relies heavily on material inducements, such as patronage, to win votes and to govern.
Battleground States
The key states that the presidential campaigns focus on because they are most likely to decide the outcome of the Electoral College vote.
Due Process Clause
Part of the Fourteenth Amendment guaranteeing that persons cannot be deprived of life, liberty, or property by the United States or state governments without due process of law.
Impeachment
The political equivalent of an indictment in criminal law, prescribed by the Constitution. The House of Representatives may impeach the president by a majority vote for “Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors.”
Frontloading
The recent tendency of states to hold primaries early in the calendar in order to capitalize on media attention.
Hyperpluralism
A theory of American democracy arguing that a wide variety of interest groups have become empowered with the ability to veto policy change, thereby leading to regular gridlock in Washington.
New Jersey Plan
The proposal at the Constitutional Convention that called for equal representation of each state in Congress regardless of the state’s population.
Random Sampling
The key technique employed by survey researchers, which operates on the principle that everyone should have an equal probability of being selected for the sample.
Superfund
A fund created by Congress in 1980 to clean up hazardous waste sites. Money for the fund comes from taxing chemical products.
Filibuster
A strategy unique to the Senate whereby opponents of a piece of legislation try to talk it to death, based on the tradition of unlimited debate. 60 members present and voting can halt a filibuster.
Consumer Price Index
The key measure of inflation; the change in the cost of buying a fixed basket of goods and services.
Federal Election Commission
A six-member bipartisan agency created by the Federal Election Campaign Act of 1974. The Federal Election Commission administers and enforces campaign finance laws.
Libel
The publication of false or malicious statements that may damage someone’s reputation.
Relative Deprivation
A perception by an individual that he or she is not doing well economically in comparison to others.
Unitary Government
A central government that holds supreme power in a nation. Most national governments today are unitary governments.
Writ of Habeas Corpus
A court order requiring authorities to explain to a judge what lawful reason they have for holding a prisoner in custody.
Amicus Curiae Brief
A “friend of the court” brief, filed by an individual or organization to present arguments in addition to those presented by the immediate parties to a case.
Zelman v. Simmons-Harris (2002)
The 2002 Supreme Court decision that upheld a state providing families with vouchers that could be used to pay for tuition at religious schools.
Enumerated Powers
Powers of the federal government that are listed explicitly in the Constitution. (For example, Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution specifically gives Congress the power to coin money, regulate its value and impose taxes).
Coalition
A group of individuals with a common interest on which every political party depends.
Party Dealignment
The gradual disengagement of people and politicians from the parties, as seen in part by shrinking party identification.
Narrowcasting
Media programming on cable TV (e.g., on MTV, ESPN, or C-SPAN) or the Internet that is focused on a particular interest and aimed at a particular audience, in contrast to broadcasting.
Watchdog Journalism
Journalism that attempts to hold government officials and institutions accountable for their actions.
Horse Race Journalism
News coverage that focuses on who is ahead in an election rather than on the individual issues of the candidates’ policy views.
501(c) Groups
Groups that are exempted from reporting their contributions and can receive unlimited contributions. Section 501c of the tax code specifies that such groups cannot spend more than half their funds on political activities.
Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990
A law passed in 1990 that requires employers and public facilities to make “reasonable accommodations” for people with disabilities and prohibits discrimination against these individuals in employment.
Anti-Federalists
Opponents of the American Constitution at the time when the states were contemplating its adoption.
Appropriations Bill
An act of Congress that actually funds programs within limits established by authorization bills. Appropriations usually cover one year.
Articles of Confederation
The first Constitution of the United States, adopted by Congress in 1777 and ratified in 1781. The Articles established the Continental Congress as the national legislature, but left most authority with the state legislatures.
Authorization Bill
An act of Congress that establishes, continues, or changes a discretionary government program or an entitlement. It specifies program goals and maximum expenditures for discretionary programs.
Beats
Specific locations from which news frequently emanates, such as Congress or the White House. Most top reporters work a particular beat, thereby becoming specialists in what goes on at that location.
Bill
A proposed law, drafted in legal language. Anyone can draft a bill, but only a member of the House of Representatives or the Senate can formally submit a bill for consideration.
Bill of Rights
The first 10 amendments in the U.S Constitution, which define such basic liberties as freedom of religion, speech, and the press, and they guarantee defendants’ rights.
Block Grant
Federal grants given more or less automatically to states or communities to support broad programs in areas such as community development and social services.
Budget
A policy document allocating burdens (taxes) and benefits (expenditures).
Budget Resolution
A resolution binding Congress to a total expenditure level, supposedly the bottom line of all federal spending for all programs.
Bureaucracy
A hierarchical authority structure that uses task specialization, operates on the merit principle, and behaves with impersonality.
Caucus
A system for selecting convention delegates used in about a dozen states in which voters must attend an open meeting to express their presidential preference.
Congressional Caucus
A group of members of Congress sharing some interest or characteristic. Many are composed of members from both parties and from both houses.
Census
An “actual enumeration” of the population, which the Constitution requires that the government conduct every 10 years. The Census is a valuable tool for understanding demographic changes.
Chains
Groups of newspapers published by media conglomerates and today accounting for over four-fifths of the nation’s daily newspaper circulation.
Checks and Balances
Features of the Constitution that require each branch of the federal government to obtain the consent of the others for its actions; they limit the power of each branch.
Civic Duty
The belief that in order to support democratic government, a citizen should vote.
Civil Disobedience
A form of political participation that reflects a conscious decision to break a law believed to be unjust and to suffer the consequences.
Civil Liberties
The constitutional and other legal protections against government actions. American civil liberties are formally laid out in the Bill of Rights.
Civil Rights
Policies designed to protect people against arbitrary or discriminatory treatment by government officials or individuals.
Civil RIghts Act of 1964
The law making racial discrimination in public accommodations illegal. It forbade many forms of job discrimination and strengthened voting rights.
Civil Service
A system of hiring and promotion based on the merit principle and the desire to create a nonpartisan government service.
Class Action Suit
Lawsuits in which a small number of people sue on behalf of all people in similar circumstances.
Closed Primaries
Elections to select party nominees in which only people who have registered in advance with the party can vote for that party’s candidates, thus encouraging greater party loyalty.
Coalition Government
When two or more parties join together to form a majority in a national legislature. This form of government is quite common in the multiparty systems of Europe.
Collective Goods
Goods and services, such as clean air and clean water, that by their nature cannot be denied to anyone.
Command-And-Control Policy
The typical system of regulation whereby government tells business how to reach certain goals, checks that these commands are followed, and punishes offenders.
Commercial Speech
Communication in the form of advertising. It can be restricted more than many other types of speech but received increased protection from the Supreme Court.
Committee Chairs
The most important influencers of the congressional agenda. They play dominant roles in scheduling hearings, hiring staff, appointing subcommittees, and managing committee bills when they are brought before the full house.
Conference Committees
Congressional committees formed when the Senate and the House pass a particular bill in different forms. Party leadership appoints members from each house to iron out the differences and bring back a single bill.
Congressional Budget Office
Advises Congress on the probable consequences of its decisions, forecasts revenues, and is a counterweight to the president’s Office of Management and Budget.
Connecticut Compromise
The compromise reached at the Constitutional Convention that established two houses of Congress: the House of Representatives, in which representation is based on a state’s share of the U.S. population, and the Senate, in which each state has two representatives.
Consent of The Governed
The idea that government derives its authority from the people.
Continuing Resolutions
When Congress cannot reach agreement and pass appropriations bills, these resolutions allow agencies to spend at the level of the previous year.
Cooperative Federalism
A system of government in which powers and policy assignments are shared between states and the national government.
Courts of Appeals
Appellate courts empowered to review all final decisions of district courts, except in rare cases. In addition, they also hear appeals to orders of many federal regulatory agencies.
Critical Election
An electoral “earthquake” where new issues emerge, new coalitions replace old ones, and the majority party is often displaced by the minority party.
Cruel and Unusual Punishment
Court sentences prohibited by the Eighth Amendment.
Declaration of Independence
The document approved by representatives of the American colonies in 1776 that stated their grievances against the British monarch and declared their independence.
Deficit
An excess of federal expenditures over federal revenues.
Democracy
A system of selecting policymakers and of organizing government so that policy represents and responds to the public’s preferences.
Demography
The science of population changes.
Deregulation
The lifting of government restrictions on business, industry, and professional activities.
Devolution
Transferring responsibility for policies from the federal government to state and local governments.
District Courts
The 91 federal courts of original jurisdiction. They are the only federal courts in which trials are held and in which juries may be impaneled.
Original Jurisdiction
The jurisdiction of courts that hear a case first, usually in a trial. These are the courts that determine the facts about a case.
Dual Federalism
A system of government in which both the states and the national government remain supreme within their own spheres, each responsible for some policies.
Earned Income Tax Credit
Also known as the EITC, a refundable federal income tax credit for low- to moderate-income working individuals and families, even if they did not earn enough money to be required to file a tax return.
Elastic Clause
The final paragraph of Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution, which authorizes Congress to pass all laws “necessary and proper” to carry out enumerated powers.
Elitism
A theory of American democracy contending that an upper-class elite holds the power and makes policy, regardless of the formal governmental organization.
Entitlement Programs
Government programs providing benefits to qualified individuals regardless of need.
Environmental Impact Statement
A detailing of a proposed policy’s environmental effects, which agencies are required to file with the EPA every time they propose to undertake a policy that might be disruptive to the environment.
Equal Protection of the Laws
Part of the Fourteenth Amendment emphasizing that the laws must provide equivalent “protection” to all people.
Establishment Clause
Part of the First Amendment stating that “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion.”
Exclusionary Rule
The rule that evidence cannot be introduced into a trial if it was not constitutionally obtained. The rule prohibits use of evidence obtained through unreasonable search and seizure.
Executive Orders
Regulations originating with the executive branch. Executive orders are one method presidents can use to control the bureaucracy.
Exit Poll
Public opinion surveys used by major media pollsters to predict electoral winners with accuracy.
Expenditures
Government spending. Major areas of federal spending are social services and national defense.
Extradition
A legal process whereby a state surrenders a person charged with a crime to the state in which the crime is alleged to have been committed.
Factions
Groups such as interest groups, that according to James Madison, arise from the unequal distribution of property or wealth and have the potential to cause instability in government.
Federal Reserve System
The main instrument for making monetary policy in the United States. It was created by Congress in 1913 to regulate the lending practices of banks and thus the money supply.
Federalist Papers
Written by Hamilton, Jay, & Madison to support ratification of the U.S. Constituiton. A set of 85 essays that provide insightful commentary on the nature of the new system of government.
Federalists
Supporters of the U.S Constitution at the time the states were contemplating its adoption.
Fiscal Federalism
The pattern of spending, taxing, and providing grants in the federal system; it is the cornerstone of the national government’s relations with state and local governments.
Fiscal Policy
Cabinet Departments
Formula Grants
Free Exercise Clause
Free-Rider Problem
Occurs when potential group members utilize an interest group’s resources without officially joining.
Full Faith And Credit Clause
Article IV; section I, establishing that states must respect the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other state.
Government Corporation
A company registered under the government’s ownership, whose aim is to offer a market-oriented service to the public.
Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
A monetary measure of the market value of all final goods and services produced by a country within a specific time period.
Discharge Petition
A means of bringing a House bill out of committee and to the floor for consideration by “discharging” the committee from further consideration/resolution.
Separation of Powers
The act of vesting the legislative, executive, and judicial powers of government in separate branches.
Independent Regulatory Agencies
Federal agencies that have been established by Congress to have a certain amount of independence from the President.
Bull Market
A period of time during which stock market prices move ‘up’ for several consecutive months or years.
Bear Market
A period of time during which stock market prices move ‘down’ for several consecutive months or years.
Economic Recession
Economic Depression
Free Enterprise
An economic system in which private business operates in competition and largely free of state control.
Capitalism
An economic and political system in which a country’s trade and industry are controlled by private owners for profit.
Electoral College
Pork Barrel
Instances where funding for a local project is inserted into a larger budget appropriation as a line item.
Log-Rolling
The practice of exchanging favors, especially in politics, by reciprocal voting for each other’s proposed legislation.
Gerrymandering
The act of manipulating the boundaries of a congressional district to favor one party or class.
Title IX
The landmark federal civil rights law in the United States that was enacted as part of the Education Amendments of 1972; prohibits sex-based discrimination in any school or educational program that receives federal funding.
Libertarianism
A political philosophy that advocates only minimal state intervention in the free market and private lives of citizens.
Three-Fifths Compromise
A decision made during the Constitutional Convention to count each slave as three-fifths of a person in a state’s population for the purposes of determining the number of House of Representatives members and the distribution of taxes.
Commerce Clause
Political Action Committee (PAC)
Socialism
War Powers Act
Hatch Act
A federal law prohibiting government employees from active participation in partisan politics while on duty or for employees in sensitive positions at any time.
High-Tech Politics
A politics in which the behavior of citizens and policymakers and the political agenda itself are increasingly shaped by technology.
Income Tax
Shares of individual wages and corporate revenues collected by the government. The Sixteenth Amendment explicitly authorized Congress to levy a tax on income.
Incentive System
An alternative to command-and-control, with market-like strategies such as rewards used to manage public policy.
Incorporation Doctrine
The legal concept under which the Supreme Court has nationalized the Bill of Rights by making most of its provisions applicable to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment.
Incrementalism
A description of the budget process in which the best predictor of this year’s budget is last year’s budget, plus a little bit more (an increment).
Incumbent
Individuals who already hold office. In congressional elections, incumbents usually win.
Independent Executive Agency
The government agencies not accounted for by cabinet departments. Their administrators are appointed by the president and serve at the president’s pleasure.
Independent Expenditures
Expenses on behalf of a political message that are made by groups that are uncoordinated with any candidate’s campaign.
Independent Regulatory Commission
A government agency with responsibility for making and enforcing rules to protect the public interest in some sector of the economy and for judging disputes over these rules.
Inflation
A rise in the price of goods and services.
Intergovernmental Regulations
The entire set of interactions among national, state, and local government — including regulations, transfers of funds, and the sharing of information — that constitute the workings of the federal system.
Invisible Primary
The period before any votes are cast when candidates compete to win early support from the elite of the party and to create a positive first impression of their leadership skills.
Judicial Activism
An approach to decision making in which judges sometimes make bold policy decisions, even charting new constitutional ground.
Judicial Review
The power of the courts to determine whether acts of Congress and those of the executive branch are in accord with the U.S Constitution. Established by Marbury v. Madison.
Justiciable Disputes
Issues capable of being settled as a matter of law.
Keynesian Economic Theory
Named after the English economist John Maynard Keynes, the theory emphasizing that government spending and deficits can help the economy deal with its ups and downs. Proponents of this theory advocate using the power of government to stimulate the economy when it is lagging.
Legislative Oversight
Congress’ monitoring of the executive branch bureaucracy and its administration of policy, performed mainly through committee hearings.
Lemon v. Kurtzman
The 1971 Supreme Court decision that established that aid to church-related schools must (1) have a secular legislative purpose (2) have a primary effect that neither advances nor inhibits religion (3) not foster excessive government entanglement with religion.
Legislative Veto
A vote in Congress to override a presidential decision. The War Powers Resolution asserts this authority.
Limited Government
The idea that certain restrictions should be placed on government to protect the natural rights of citizens.
Lobbying
A communication by someone other than a citizen, acting on behalf of the public, directed to a governmental decision maker with the hope of influencing policy decision.
Majority Rule
A fundamental principle of traditional democratic theory. In a democracy, choosing among alternatives requires that the majority’s desire be respected.
McGovern-Frasier Commission
A commission formed at the 1968 democratic convention in response to demands for reform by minority groups and others who sought better representation.
Means-Tested Programs
Government programs providing benefits only to individuals who qualify based on specific needs.
Media Events
Events that are purposely staged for the media and that are significant just because the media are there.
Medicaid
A public assistance program designed to provide health care for poor Americans and funded by both the states and the national government.
Medicare
A program added to the Social Security system in 1965 that provides health insurance for the elderly, covering hospitalization, doctor fees, and other health expenses.
Minority Leader
The principal leader of the minority party in the House of Representatives or the Senate.
Monetarism
An economic theory holding that the supply of money is the key to a nation’s economic health, with too much cash and credit in circulation producing inflation.
Miranda v. Arizona
The 1966 Supreme Court decision that set guidelines for police questioning of accused persons to protect them against self-incrimination and to protect their right to counsel.
Conscience Model of Representation.
The philosophy that legislators should follow the will of the people until they truly believe it is in the best interests of the nation to act differently
Prior Restraint
Judicial suppression of material that would be published or broadcast, on the grounds that it is libelous or harmful.
Trustee Model of Representation
When elected officials will ultimately rely on their own judgement when making decisions.
Delegate Model of Representation
Elected representatives are delegated the responsibility to act in the interests of the people who elected them (their constituents).
Politico Model of Representation
The elected official will follow the trustee model until their constituents push them towards the delegate model on certain issue.
Congressional Whip (Minority/Majority)
Traditionally serving as assistant leaders, whips are mainly responsible for counting heads and rounding up party members for votes and quorum calls.
Eminent Domain
Power of a government to take private property for public use; the federal government is required to provide just compensation for property taken in this manner.
Fiscal Federalism
A concept of federalism in which funding is appropriated by the federal government to the states with specific conditions attached.
Inherent Powers
Powers that do not rely on specific clauses of the Constitution; usually grow out of the very existence of the national government.
Reserved Powers
Powers that are neither delegated to the federal government nor denied to the states. These powers are not expressly listed in the Constitution but are rather guaranteed to the states by the Tenth Amendment.
Popular Sovereignty
The principle that a government derives its power from the consent of the people, primarily through their elected representatives.
Shays’ Rebellion
An armed revolt that lasted for six months in January 1787; more than a thousand armed soldiers, led by Daniel Shays, seized an arsenal in Massachusetts to protest high taxes and the loss of their farms due to debt.
Constitutional Convention
An assembly that convened in 1787 to revise the Articles of Confederation but that ultimately proposed an entirely new framework for the federal government.
Federalists
Favored a strong central government that could manage the nation’s debt, foreign policy, and other political affairs.
Anti-Federalists
Opposed the development of a strong central government, preferring instead for power to remain in the hands of state and local governments.
