AP Glossary Flashcards
Active Voice: definition
The subject of the sentence performs the action. This is a more direct and preferred style of writing in most cases.
Active Voice: example
The dog barked at the door.
The teacher graded the work.
Active Voice: effect on text
In most cases, using active voice will result in shorter, sharper sentences that are easier for the reader to follow. This makes your writing clearer and aids the reader in visualizing what’s happening, especially when you use vivid action verbs.
Allusion: definition
An indirect reference to something (usually a literary text, although it can be other things commonly known, such as plays, songs, historical events) with which the reader is supposed to be familiar.
Allusion: example
Stop acting like a Scrooge!
Allusion: effect on text
Allusions are used as stylistic devices to help contextualize a story by referencing a well-known person, place, event, or another literary work.
Alter-ego: definition
A character that is used by the author to speak the author’s own thoughts; when an author speaks directly to the audience through a character.
Alter-ego: example
Bruce Wayne and Batman
Clark Kent and Superman
Alter-ego: effect on text
Helps connect the audience with the author
Anecdote: definition
A brief recounting of a relevant episode. Anecdotes are often inserted into fictional or non fictional texts as a way of developing a point or injecting humor.
Anecdote: example
A group of coworkers are discussing pets, and one coworker tells a story about how her cat comes downstairs at only a certain time of the night, then that one coworker has just told an anecdote.
Anecdote: effect on text
An anecdote might make a listener or reader laugh, or consider the deeper import of the story. Anecdotes usually occur in discussions or conversations between two or more persons, and revolve around the primary topic being discussed.
Antecedent: definition
The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun.
Antecedent: example
Mark put his coffee on the counter. Mark is the antecedent
Antecedent: effect on text
It gives depth to a word or phrase
Classicism: definition
Art or literature characterized by a realistic view of people and the world; sticks to traditional themes and structures
Classicism: example
Examples of this appeal to classicism included Dante, Petrarch, and Shakespeare in poetry and theatre. Tudor drama, in particular, modeled itself after classical ideals and divided works into Tragedy and Comedy.
Classicism: effect on text
Literary classicism was most popular and had the most impact from the mid-1700s to about 1800, primarily in England. Also termed neoclassical style or period, these works reflected the styles and ideals from Ancient Greek and Roman thought and art, focusing on logic, symmetry, integrity, law and allegiance.
Comic Relief: definition
When a humorous scene is inserted into a serious story, in order to lighten the mood
somewhat.
Comic Relief: example
External Comic Relief is when the audience laughs, but the characters themselves don’t. This could happen, for example, when a character slips on a banana peel: nobody onscreen is laughing, but the audience still finds it funny. We’re laughing at the characters.
Comic Relief: effect on text
Comic relief is a literary device used in plays and novels to introduce light entertainment between tragic scenes. It is often used in the shape of a humorous incident, a funny incident, a tricky remark or a laughing commentary. It is deliberately inserted to make the audiences feel relief.
Diction: definition
Word choice, particularly as an element of style. Different types of words have significant effects on meaning. An essay written in academic diction would be much less colorful, but perhaps more precise than street slang.
Diction: example
Choosing more elevated words will establish a formality to the piece of literature, while choosing slang will make it informal. For example, consider the difference between “I am much obliged to you, sir” and “Thanks a bunch, buddy!”
Diction: effect on text
As a literary device, diction refers to the choice of words and style of expression that an author makes and uses in a work of literature. Diction can have a great effect on the tone of a piece of literature, and how readers perceive the characters.
Colloquial: definition
Ordinary or familiar type of conversation. A “colloquialism” is a common or familiar type of saying, similar to an adage or an aphorism.
Colloquial: example
Wanna
Gonna
Y’all
Colloquial: effect on text
Colloquial expressions impart a sense of realism to a piece of literature, which again attracts readers as they identify it with their real life.
Connotation: definition
Rather than the dictionary definition (denotation), the associations suggested by a word. Implied meaning rather than literal meaning.
Connotation: example
“policeman,” “cop,” and “The Man” all denote the same literal meaning of police officer, but each has a different connotation
Connotation: effect on text
Using words with different connotations can really change the meaning of a sentence and the tone, which means the attitude of the speaker.
Denotation: definition
The literal, explicit meaning of a word, without its connotations.
Denotation: example
Denotation of the word “blue” is the color blue, but its connotation is “sad”
Denotation: effect on text
Denotation is used when an author wants the reader to understand a word, phrase, or sentence in its literal form, without other implied, associated, or suggested meanings.
Jargon: definition
The diction used by a group which practices a similar profession or activity.
Jargon: example
Lawyers speak using particular jargon, as do soccer players.
Jargon: effect on text
Jargon in literature is used to emphasize a situation, or to refer to something exotic. In fact, the use of jargon in literature shows the dexterity of the writer, of having knowledge of other spheres. Writers use jargon to make a certain character seem real in fiction, as well as in plays and poetry.
Vernacular: definition
- Language or dialect of a particular country.
- Language or dialect of a regional clan or group.
- Plain everyday speech
Vernacular: example
English in the United States
Vernacular: effect on text
Vernacular language was possible to rise and spread because many people did not speak Latin, not even noble men. Since vernacular language made it easier to convert people to Christianity, it was eventually used over Latin.
Didactic: definition
A term used to describe fiction, nonfiction or poetry that teaches a specific lesson or moral or provides a model of correct behavior or thinking.
Didactic: example
Every textbook and “how-to” book is an example of didacticism, as their explicit purpose is to instruct and educate. Books written for children also often have a didactic intent, as they are often created to teach children about moral values.
Didactic: effect on text
Didacticism describes a type of literature that is written to inform or instruct the reader, especially in moral or political lessons. While they are also meant to entertain the audience, the aesthetics in a didactic work of literature are subordinate to the message it imparts.
Adage: definition
A folk saying with a lesson
Adage: example
“A penny saved is a penny earned.”
Adage: effect on text
An adage expresses a general fact or truth about life, which becomes more and more popular before it is accepted as a universal truth
Allegory: definition
A story, fictional or non fictional, in which characters, things, and events represent qualities or concepts. The interaction of these characters, things, and events is meant to reveal an abstraction or a truth.
Allegory: example
Nathaniel Hawthorne, The Scarlet Letter
Allegory: effect on text
Allegory allows writers to create some distance between themselves and the issues they are discussing, especially when those issues are strong critiques of political or societal realities.
Aphorism: definition
A terse statement which expresses a general truth or moral principle. An aphorism can be a memorable summation of the author’s point.
Aphorism: example
“God helps them that help themselves,”
Aphorism: effect on text
A memorable summation of the author’s point.
Ellipsis: definition
The deliberate omission of a word or phrase from prose done for effect by the author.
Ellipsis: example
“The whole day, rain, torrents of rain.”
Ellipsis: effect on text
Usually done for effect.
Euphemism: definition
A more agreeable or less offensive substitute for generally unpleasant words or concepts. Sometimes they are used for political correctness.
Euphemism: example
“Physically challenged,” in place of “crippled.”
Euphemism: effect on text
Used to mislead or obfuscate the real meaning of what is being said.
Figurative Language: definition
Writing that is not meant to be taken literally.
Figurative Language: example
The world is my oyster.
Figurative Language: effect on text
Enhance the emotional significance of passages
Analogy: definition
An analogy is a comparison of one pair of variables to a parallel set of variables. When a writer uses an analogy, he or she argues that the relationship between the first pair of variables is the same as the relationship between the second pair of variables.
Analogy: example
“America is to the world as the
hippo is to the jungle.”
Analogy: effect on text
Enhance the emotional significance of passages
Hyperbole: definition
An exaggeration
Hyperbole: example
“My mother will kill me if I am late.”
Hyperbole: effect on text
Enhance the emotional significance of passages
Idiom: definition
A common, often used expression that doesn’t make sense if you take it literally.
Idiom: example
“I got chewed out by my coach.”
Idiom: effect on text
Enhance the emotional significance of passages
Metaphor: definition
Making an implied comparison, not using “like,” as,” or other such words.
Metaphor: example
“My feet are popsicles.”
Metaphor: effect on text
Enhance the emotional significance of passages
Metonymy: definition
Replacing an actual word or idea, with a related word or concept.
Metonymy: example
“I could not understand his tongue”
Metonymy: effect on text
To focus the rhetorical emphasis of a reference to an object on a specific quality of that object.
Synecdoche: definition
A kind of metonymy when a whole is represented by naming one of its parts, or vice versa.
Synecdoche: example
“The cattle rancher owned 500 head.”
Synecdoche: effect on text
To focus the rhetorical emphasis of a reference to an object on a specific quality of that object.
Simile: definition
Using words such as “like” or “as” to make a direct comparison between two very different things.
Simile: example
“My feet are so cold they feel like popsicles.”
Simile: effect on text
Enhance the emotional significance of passages
Synesthesia: definition
a description involving a “crossing of the senses.”
Synesthesia: example
“A purplish scent filled the room.”
Synesthesia: effect on text
Allows authors to deliver another level of description in literature.
Personification: definition
Giving human-like qualities to something that is not human.
Personification: example
“The tired old truck groaned as it inched up the hill.”
Personification: effect on text
Allows authors to deliver another level of description in literature.
Foreshadowing: definition
When an author gives hints about what will occur later in a story.
Foreshadowing: example
Omens, such as prophecies or broken mirror.
Foreshadowing: effect on text
Creates an atmosphere of suspense in a story, so that the readers are interested and want to know more.
Genre: definition
The major category into which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of literature are prose,
poetry, and drama.
Genre: example
Prose, Poetry, and Drama
Genre: effect on text
Social constructions that represent specific purposes for reading and writing within different social activities
Gothic: definition
Writing characterized by gloom, mystery, fear and/or death. Also refers to an architectural style
of the middle ages, often seen in cathedrals of this period.
Gothic: example
Dracula by Bram Stoker
Gothic: effect on text
Often elicits intense, suspenseful feelings of fear, shock, dread, or disgust in the reader.
Imagery: definition
Word or words that create a picture in the reader’s mind. Usually this involves the five senses.
Imagery: example
The concert was so loud that her ears rang for days afterward.
Imagery: effect on text
Authors often use imagery in conjunction with metaphors, similes, or figures of speech.
Invective: definition
A long, emotionally violent, attack using strong, abusive language.
Invective: example
“A knave, a rascal; an eater of broken meats”
Invective: effect on text
Can arouse negative emotion in the audience as well as the target of the insult.
Irony: definition
When the opposite of what you expect to happen does.
Irony: example
Verbal, Dramatic, and Situational
Irony: effect on text
Keep readers’ interest on the story by creating a contrast between the character’s present situation and the action that will unfold.
Verbal Irony: definition
When you say something and mean the opposite/something different.
Verbal Irony: example
If your gym teacher wants you to run a mile in eight minutes or faster but calls it a “walk in the park” it would be verbal irony.
Verbal Irony: effect on text
Can be used to be funny, to expose discrepancies of facts, to make fun of something and to create a point of view.
Dramatic Irony: definition
When the audience of a drama, play, movie, etc. knows something that the character doesn’t and would be surprised to find out.
Dramatic Irony: example
In many horror movies, we (the audience) know who the killer is, which the victim-to-be has no idea who is doing the slaying. Sometimes the character trusts the killer completely when (ironically) he/she shouldn’t.
Dramatic Irony: effect on text
Can create suspense or tension for the audience.
Situational Irony: definition
Found in the plot (or storyline) of a book, story, or movie. Sometimes it makes you laugh because it’s funny how things turn out.
Situational Irony: example
Johnny spent two hours planning on sneaking into the movie theater and missed the movie. When he finally did manage to sneak inside he found out that kids were admitted free that day.
Situational Irony: effect on text
Can make a plot twist more interesting, draw attention to a reader’s unwarranted biases, or show how a character handles an unexpected situation.
Juxtaposition: definition
Placing things side by side for the purposes of comparison.
Juxtaposition: example
An author may juxtapose the average day of a
typical American with that of someone in the third world in order to make a point of social commentary.
Juxtaposition: effect on text
Authors often use juxtaposition of ideas or examples in order to make a point.
Mood: definition
The atmosphere created by the literature and accomplished through word choice (diction). Syntax is often a creator of mood since word order, sentence length and strength and complexity also affect pacing and therefore mood. Setting, tone, and events can all affect the mood.
Mood: example
Humorous -Maddening.
Sad -Fearful.
Gloomy -Desiring.
Mood: effect on text
Helps in creating an atmosphere in a literary work by means of setting, theme, diction and tone.
Motif: definition
A recurring idea in a piece of literature.
Motif: example
In To Kill a Mockingbird, the idea that “you never really understand another person until you consider things from his or her point of view” is a motif.
Motif: effect on text
May be used to establish mood
Oxymoron: definition
When apparently contradictory terms are grouped together and suggest a paradox.
Oxymoron: example
“wise fool,” “eloquent silence,” “jumbo shrimp.”
Oxymoron: effect on text
Add dramatic effect.
Pacing: definition
The speed or tempo of an author’s writing.
Pacing: example
syntax, polysyndeton, anaphora, meter
Pacing: effect on text
Determines the appeal of the story for the audience.
Paradox: definition
A seemingly contradictory situation that is actually true.
Paradox: example
“You can’t get a job without experience, and you can’t get experience without getting a job.”
Paradox: effect on text
To engage a reader to discover an underlying logic in a seemingly self-contradictory statement or phrase.
Parallelism: definition
Sentence construction places equal grammatical constructions near each other or repeats identical grammatical patterns.
Parallelism: example
“Cinderella swept the floor, dusted the mantle, and beat the rugs.”
Parallelism: effect on text
Used to add emphasis, organization, or sometimes pacing to writing.
Anaphora: definition
Repetition of a word, phrase, or clause at the beginning of two or more sentences or clauses in a row.
Anaphora: example
“I came, I saw, I conquered.”
Anaphora: effect on text
This is a deliberate form of repetition and helps make the writer’s point more coherent.
Chiasmus: definition
When the same words are used twice in succession, but the second time, the order of the words is reversed.
Chiasmus: example
“Fair is foul and foul is fair.” “When the going gets tough, the tough get going.”
Chiasmus: effect on text
This is a deliberate form of repetition and helps make the writer’s point more coherent.
Antithesis: definition
Two opposite or contrasting words, phrases, or clauses, or even ideas, with parallel structure.
Antithesis: example
“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times”
Antithesis: effect on text
Highlights the stark difference between opposing ideas by placing them side-by-side in exactly the same structure.
Zuegma: definition
When a single word governs or modifies two or more other words, and the meaning of the first word must change for each of the other words it governs or modifies.
Zuegma: example
“The butler killed the lights, and then the mistress.” “I quickly dressed myself and the salad.”
Zuegma: effect on text
Used to create a literary effect.
Parenthetical Idea: definition
Parentheses are used to set off an idea from the rest of the sentence.
Parenthetical Idea: example
“In a short time (and the time is getting shorter by the gallon) America will be out of oil.”
Parenthetical Idea: effect on text
Should be used sparingly for effect.
Parody: definition
An exaggerated imitation of serious work for humorous purposes. It borrows words or phrases from an original and pokes fun at it.
Parody: example
The Simpsons
Parody: effect on text
When it mingles with satire, it makes satire more pointed and effective.
Persona: definition
The fictional mask or narrator that tells a story.
Persona: example
My Last Duchess (By Robert Browning)
Persona: effect on text
Helps connect the audience with the author
Poetic Device: definition
A device used in poetry to manipulate the sound of words, sentences, or lines.
Poetic Device: example
Alliteration, Onomatopoeia
Poetic Device: effect on text
Appeals to the audience’s sense of hearing
Alliteration: definition
The repetition of the same consonant sound at the beginning of words.
Alliteration: example
“Sally sells seashells by the seashore”
Alliteration: effect on text
Appeals to the audience’s sense of hearing
Assonance: definition
The repetition of identical or similar vowel sounds.
Assonance: example
“From the molten-golden notes”
Assonance: effect on text
Appeals to the audience’s sense of hearing
Consonance: definition
The repetition of the same consonant sound at the end of words or within words.
Consonance: example
“Some late visitor entreating entrance at my chamber door”
Consonance: effect on text
Appeals to the audience’s sense of hearing
Onomatopoeia: definition
The use of a word that imitates or suggests the sound that the thing makes.
Onomatopoeia: example
Snap, rustle, boom, murmur
Onomatopoeia: effect on text
Appeals to the audience’s sense of hearing
Internal Rhyme: definition
When a line of poetry contains a rhyme within a single line.
Internal Rhyme: example
“The the rhyming and chiming of the bells!”
Internal Rhyme: effect on text
Appeals to the audience’s sense of hearing
Slant Rhyme: definition
When a poet creates a rhyme, but the two words do not rhyme exactly – they are merely similar.
Slant Rhyme: example
“I sat upon a stone, / And found my life has gone.”
Slant Rhyme: effect on text
Catches the reader by surprise and subverts their expectations, delivering a satisfyingly unexpected twist.
End Rhyme: definition
When the last word of two different lines of poetry rhyme.
End Rhyme: example
“Roses are red, violets are blue, / Sugar is sweet, and so are you.”
End Rhyme: effect on text
Appeals to the audience’s sense of hearing.
Rhyme Scheme: definition
The pattern of a poem’s end rhymes.
Rhyme Scheme: example
Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day? a
Thou art more lovely and more temperate. b
Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May. a
And summer’s lease hath all too short a date. b
Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines c
And often is his gold complexion dimmed d
And every fair from fair sometime declines c
By chance or nature’s changing course untrimmed d
Rhyme Scheme: effect on text
Appeals to the audience’s sense of hearing.
Stressed and Unstressed Syllables: definition
In every word of more than one syllable, one of the syllables is stressed or said with more force then the other syllable(s).
Stressed and Unstressed Syllables: example
In the name “Nathan,” the first syllable is stressed. In the word “unhappiness,” the second of the four syllables is stressed.
Stressed and Unstressed Syllables: effect on text
The increase of intensity of the stressed syllable is greater than that of the unstressed one.
Meter: definition
A regular pattern to the syllables in lines of poetry.
Meter: example
“Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary”
Meter: effect on text
Helps readers understand rhythm as it relates to words and lines in a poem.
Free Verse: definition
Poetry that doesn’t have much meter or rhyme.
Free Verse: example
“Fog” by Carl Sandburg
Free Verse: effect on text
Gives greater freedom for choosing words, and conveying their meanings to the audience.
Iambic Pentameter: definition
Poetry that is written in lines of 10 syllables, alternating stressed and unstressed syllables.
Iambic Pentameter: example
“Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?”
Iambic Pentameter: effect on text
Modern authors, too, use it for writing serious poems. Its major function, therefore, is to give less rigid, but natural flow to the text. Also, this form accommodates intonation and pace of language, allowing an underlying meter to make impacts on readers.
Sonnet: definition
A 14 line poem written in iambic pentameter. Usually divided into three quatrains and a couplet.
Sonnet: example
“Astrophil and Stella” by Sir Philip Sidney
Sonnet: effect on text
Understanding the significance of a sonnet can help you strengthen close reading and analytical skills, build a better appreciation for poetry, and derive more meaning from your reading. The sonnet is a significant form of poetry with a set structure.
Polysyndeton: definition
When a writer creates a list of items which are all separated by conjunctions. Normally, a conjunction is used only before the last item in a list.
Polysyndeton: example
“I walked the dog, and fed the cat, and milked the cows.”
“Or if a soul touch any unclean thing, whether it be a carcass of an unclean beast, or a carcass of unclean cattle, or the carcass of unclean creeping things…he also shall be unclean.”
Polysyndeton: effect on text
Polysyndeton performs several functions. Not only does it join words, phrases, and clauses, bringing continuity to a sentence, but it acts also as a stylistic device that brings rhythm to the text with the repetition of conjunctions in quick succession.
Pun: definition
When a word that has two or more meanings is used in a humorous way.
Pun: example
“My dog has a fur coat and pants!”
“I was stirred by his cooking lesson.”
Pun: effect on text
Makes the text more humorous
Rhetoric: definition
The art of effective communication.
Rhetoric: example
Martin Luther King Jr.’s I have a dream speech
Rhetoric: effect on text
Rhetoric uses language to appeal mainly to emotions, but also in some cases to shared values or logic.
Aristotle’s Rhetorical Triangle: definition
The relationships, in any piece of writing, between the writer, the audience, and the subject. All analysis of writing is essentially an analysis of the relationships between the points on the triangle.
Aristotle’s Rhetorical Triangle: example
Ethos, pathos, and logos
Aristotle’s Rhetorical Triangle: effect on text
Ethos is about establishing your authority to speak on the subject, logos is your logical argument for your point and pathos is your attempt to sway an audience emotionally.
Rhetorical Question: definition
Question not asked for information but for effect.
Rhetorical Question: example
“Do I look like I care?”
Rhetorical Question: effect on text
A rhetorical question is a device used to persuade or subtly influence the audience. It’s a question asked not for the answer, but for the effect. Oftentimes, a rhetorical question is used to emphasize a point or just to get the audience thinking.
Romanticism: definition
Art or literature characterized by an idealistic, perhaps unrealistic view of people and the world, and an emphasis on nature. Does not rely on traditional themes and structures
Romanticism: example
Some examples of romanticism include: the publication Lyrical Ballads by Wordsworth and Coleridge. the composition Hymns to the Night by Novalis.
Romanticism: effect on text
As mode of thinking, romanticism revolutionized literature, religion and philosophy. It questioned the settled way of thinking which had widely spread with the age of Enlightenment
Sarcasm: definition
A generally bitter comment that is ironically or satirically worded. However, not all satire and irony are sarcastic. It is the bitter, mocking tone that separates sarcasm from mere verbal irony or satire.
Sarcasm: example
When something bad happens and you say “That’s just what I needed today!”
Sarcasm: effect on text
Sarcasm is a sneering or mocking remark. When used in literature, sarcasm can add humor or cynicism. It can also add variety, as well as create more character development. Sarcasm can be found in all genres of literature.
Satire: definition
A work that reveals a critical attitude toward some element of life to a humorous effect. It targets human vices and follies, or social institutions and conventions.
Satire: example
Political cartoons
Satire: effect on text
Since a large purpose of satire in literature is to convey social commentary and/or criticism, this allows a writer to create awareness of issues and disparities in society. Satirical literature calls attention to these issues and can make readers aware of something they had not previously considered or understood.
Sentence: definition
A sentence is group of words (including subject and verb) that expresses a complete thought.
Sentence: example
I went to the store today.
Sentence: effect on text
Forms complete thoughts.
Appositive: definition
A word or group of words placed beside a noun or noun substitute to supplement its meaning.
Appositive: example
“Bob, the lumber yard worker, spoke with Judy, an accountant from the city.”
Appositive: effect on text
The function of appositive in literary works is to provide information, which is either essential or additional. It also gives meanings to different sentences in literary texts, and helps in identifying other nouns. An appositive noun also defines, explains, and clarifies the meaning of a sentence.
Clause: definition
A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. An independent clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent, or subordinate clause cannot stand alone as a sentence and must be accompanied by an independent clause.
Clause: example
“Other than baseball, football is my favorite sport.”
Clause: effect on text
An independent clause could, in effect, be considered a grammatically complete sentence. An independent clause contains a subject that lets the readers know what the sentence is about, as well as a verb that informs the readers what the subject is doing or will do.
Balanced Sentence: definition
A sentence in which two parallel elements are set off against each other like equal weights on a scale. Both parts are parallel grammatically.
Balanced Sentence: example
“If a free society cannot help the many who are poor, it cannot save the few who are rich.”
Balanced Sentence: effect on text
A balanced sentence gives rhythmical flow to the text. It draws attention of the readers to the sentence and makes it stand out among the rest. Writers use balanced sentences to emphasize particular ideas to make meanings clear, as well as to create pleasing rhythms.
Compound Sentence: definition
Contains at least two independent clauses but no dependent clauses.
Compound Sentence: example
I really need to go to work, but I am too sick to drive.
Compound Sentence: effect on text
Compound sentences can make your writing rich and colorful. While beginning writers learn to put together simple sentences first, they will soon find that compound sentences provide added detail and tend to make paragraphs more engaging.
Complex Sentence: definition
Contains only one independent clause and at least one dependent clause.
Complex Sentence: example
My dad laughed when I told a joke.
Complex Sentence: effect on text
Each is better in particular situations. Complex sentences join an independent clause with a dependent clause. These sentences are used to show a particular kind of relationship—usually a stronger idea joined to a weaker idea, or a controlling idea joined to a secondary, less important idea.
Cumulative Sentence: definition
When the writer begins with an independent clause, then adds subordinate elements.
Cumulative Sentence: example
He doubted whether he could ever again appear before an audience, his confidence broken, his limbs shaking, his collar wet with perspiration.
Cumulative Sentence: effect on text
Cumulative sentences add parallel elements at the end. These sentences are especially effective for description, even if they use only a single detail at the end.
Periodic Sentence: definition
When the main idea is not completed until the end of the sentence. The writer begins with subordinate elements and postpones the main clause.
Periodic Sentence: example
His confidence broken, his limbs shaking, his collar wet with perspiration, he doubted whether he could ever again appear before an audience.
Periodic Sentence: effect on text
A periodic sentence has the main clause or predicate at the end. This is used for emphasis and can be persuasive by putting reasons for something at the beginning before the final point is made. It can also create suspense or interest for the reader.
Simple Sentence: definition
Contains only one independent clause.
Simple Sentence: example
The train was late.
SImple Sentence: effect on text
If a short, simple sentence follows a series of longer, compound or complex sentences, it will stand out and create emphasis
Declarative Sentence: definition
States an idea. It does not give a command or request, nor does it ask a question.
Declarative Sentence: example
The ball is round.
Declarative Sentence: effect on text
Whether it’s a bold statement or a simple fact, the sole purpose of a declarative sentence is to give information. It always ends with a simple period. … If the purpose of your work is to give information with statements of facts, or to state an idea, or to argue a point, a declarative sentence will do the job.
Imperative Sentence: definition
Issues a command.
Imperative Sentence: example
Kick the ball.
Imperative Sentence: effect on text
It is more intentional as compared to an exclamatory sentence, as it requires a specific audience to be addressed. Writers mostly use imperatives to give clear and straightforward instructions, commands, or to express displeasure, likeness, fondness, and love through their writings.
Interrogative Sentence: definition
Sentences incorporating interrogative pronouns (what, which, who, whom, and whose).
Interrogative Sentence: example
What did you do with the ball?
Interrogative Sentence: effect on text
Interrogative sentences are generally used to perform speech acts of directly asking a question or making a request, but they are also used to convey such speech acts indirectly.
Style: definition
The choices in diction, tone, and syntax that a writer makes. Style may be conscious or unconscious.
Style: example
Say an author needs to describe a situation where he witnessed a girl picking a flower: She picked a red rose from the ground. Scarlet was the rose that she plucked from the earth.
Style: effect on text
In conclusion, style is has a central role in every piece of literature, from prose to poetry. It gives both the author and his text a voice, allowing works of all genres and topics to be shared and expressed in ways that are memorable, intriguing, and different.
Symbol: definition
Anything that represents or stands for something else. Usually a symbol is something concrete such as an object, actions, character…that represents something more abstract.
Symbol: example
Examples of symbols include the Whale in Moby Dick, the river and the jungle in Heart of Darkness, and the Raven in “The Raven.”
Symbol: effect on text
In literature, symbolism is used to produce an impact, which it accomplishes by attaching additional meaning to an action, object, or name. Symbolism takes something that is usually concrete and associates or affixes it to something else in order to give it a new and more significant meaning.
Syntax/Sentence Variety: definition
Greatly affects the tone, atmosphere, and meaning of a sentence
Syntax/Sentence Variety: example
“The boy ran hurriedly,” reads differently than, “Hurriedly, the boy ran.”
Syntax/Sentence Variety: effect on text
A writer’s syntax can make a phrase or sentence pleasant to read, or it can make the phrases or sentence jarring and unpleasant. Syntax can also make a writer’s words more memorable.
Theme: definition
The central idea or message of a work. The theme may be directly stated in nonfiction works, although not necessarily. It is rarely stated directly in fiction.
Theme: example
Some common themes in literature are “love,” “war,” “revenge,” “betrayal,” “patriotism,” “grace,” “isolation,” “motherhood,” “forgiveness,” “wartime loss,” “treachery,” “rich versus poor,” “appearance versus reality,” and “help from other-worldly powers.”
Theme: effect on text
The importance of using theme in narrative is unparalleled. The theme is the underlining idea an author is trying to convey to an audience. A story without major ideas for the character and reader to experience, think through, and learn from is not a story at all.
Thesis: definition
The sentence or groups of sentences that directly expresses the author’s opinion, purpose, meaning, or proposition. It should be short and clear.
Thesis: example
Peanut butter and jelly sandwiches are the best type of sandwich because they are versatile, easy to make, and taste good.
Thesis: effect on text
Provides direction to help keep the writer keep their paper organized.
Tone: definition
A writer’s attitude toward his subject matter revealed through diction, figurative language and organization.
Tone: example
To identify tone, consider how the piece would sound if read aloud (or how the author wanted it to sound aloud). Tone can be: playful, serious, businesslike, sarcastic, humorous, formal, somber, etc.
Tone: effect on text
Tone gives shape and life to a story. Through tone, the attitude and mood of a literary work are created and presented. It gives voice to the characters, both literally and figuratively. Tone also allows the reader to learn about a character’s personality and disposition.
Understatement: definition
The ironic minimizing of fact, understatement presents something as less significant than it is. The effect can frequently be humorous.
Understatement: example
Our defense played valiantly, and held the other team to merely eight touchdowns in the first quarter.
Understatement: effect on text
An understatements is a common figure of speech. It can be used in literature, poetry, song and daily speech. Making an understatement minimizes the severity of a situation, draws in the reader and can be used to make others feel better. An understatements can also add a touch of humor to something quite serious.
Litotes: definition
a particular form of understatement, generated by denying the opposite of the statement which otherwise would be used.
Litotes: example
Saying “It’s not the best weather today” during a hurricane.
Litotes: effect on text
Depending on the tone and context of the usage, litotes either retains the effect of understatement or becomes an intensifying expression
Argument: definition
An argument is a piece of reasoning with one or more premises and a conclusion.
Argument: example
Teenage girl presents an argument to her parents regarding why she needs a cell phone that will allow her to text and use the internet.
Argument: effect on text
Literature does not merely entertain. It also intends to shape the outlook of readers. Therefore, an argument does not intend to serve only as an introduction, but it attracts the reader’s focus to an issue that will be made clear gradually.
Premises: definition
Statements offered as reasons to support a conclusion are premises.
Premises: example
“All mammals are warm blooded; whales are mammals”
Premises: effect on text
The first step in bringing an idea to life
Conclusion: definition
A conclusion is the end result of the argument – the main point being made. In an argument one expects that the conclusion will be supported with reasons or premises. Moreover, these premises will be true and will, in fact, lead to the conclusion.
Conclusion: example
Thesis: “Dogs are better pets than cats.” Paraphrased: “Dogs make the best pets in the world.”
Conclusion: effect on text
A conclusion is an important part of the paper; it provides closure for the reader while reminding the reader of the contents and importance of the paper.
Aristotle’s Appeals: definition
The goal of argumentative writing is to persuade an audience that one’s ideas are valid, or more
valid than someone else’s.
Aristotle’s Appeals: example
Ethos, logos, pathos
Aristotle’s Appeals: effect on text
Understanding rhetorical appeals can help writers to build a stronger argument and be more persuasive in their writing. By identifying rhetorical appeals, writers can begin to understand when it is more appropriate to use one method over another.
Ethos: definition
Means being convinced by the credibility of the author. We tend to believe people whom we respect. In an appeal to ethos, a writer tries to convince the audience the he or she someone worth listening to, in other words an authority on the subject, as well as someone who is likable and worthy of respect.
Ethos: example
“As a doctor, I am qualified to tell you that this course of treatment will likely generate the best results.”
Ethos: effect on text
Ethos works by giving the author credibility. By building credibility with the audience, the speaker or writer also builds trust with his or her audience. Ethos can be used to stress the personal credentials and reputation of the speaker/writer, or cite reliable authors or sources.
Pathos: definition
Means persuading by appealing to the reader’s emotions.
Pathos: example
“If we don’t move soon, we’re all going to die! Can’t you see how dangerous it would be to stay?”
Pathos: effect on text
Pathos is to persuade by appealing to the audience’s emotions. As the speaker, you want the audience to feel the same emotions you feel about something, you want to emotionally connect with them and influence them.
Logos: definition
Means persuading by the use of reasoning, using true premises and valid arguments. This is generally considered the strongest form of persuasion.
Logos: example
Citing data in an argument
Logos: effect on text
Logos is about appealing to your audience’s logical side. You have to think about what makes sense to your audience and use that as you build your argument. As writers, we appeal to logos by presenting a line of reasoning in our arguments that is logical and clear.
Concession: definition
Accepting at least part or all of an opposing viewpoint. Often used to make one’s own argument stronger by demonstrating that one is willing to accept what is obviously true and reasonable, even if it is presented by the opposition.
Concession: example
A politician arguing that his country needs to send troops into a warzone makes the following concession: I know that any time we send troops into harm’s way, it is a risk that some will not come back.
Concession: effect on text
By making a concession to the opponent, the speaker or writer lets readers know that he or she has considered the other side of the argument and understands it. This makes the overall argument stronger.
Conditional Statement: definition
A conditional statement is an if-then statement and consists of two parts, an antecedent and a consequent.
Conditional Statement: example
“If you studied hard, then you will pass the test.”
Conditional Statement: effect on text
The “effect” part of a conditional is called the “result clause,” which explains an outcome that is dependent on the condition described in the other part of the sentence.
Contradiction: definition
A contradiction occurs when one asserts two mutually exclusive propositions
Contradiction: example
“Abortion is wrong and abortion is not wrong.”
Contradiction: effect on text
A contradiction occurs when two statements don’t seem to agree with each other. “The Sound of Silence” is a contradiction. A paradox is a type of contradiction.
Counterexample: definition
A counterexample is an example that runs counter to (opposes) a generalization, thus falsifying it.
Counterexample: example
the statement “all students are lazy” is a universal statement which makes the claim that a certain property (laziness) holds for all students. Thus, any student who is not lazy (e.g., hard-working) would constitute a counterexample to that statement.
Counterexample: effect on text
Disproves a statement
Deductive Argument: definition
An argument in which it is thought that the premises provide a guarantee of the truth of the conclusion. In a deductive argument, the premises are intended to provide support for the conclusion that is so strong that, if the premises are true, it would be impossible for the conclusion to be false.
Deductive Argument: example
All men are mortal. Harold is a man. Therefore, Harold is mortal.”
Deductive Argument: effect on text
Valid deductive arguments preserve truth, in the sense that if the premises are true, then the conclusion is also true. However, the truth (or falsehood) of a conclusion or premises does not imply that an argument is valid (or invalid). In addition, the premises and the conclusion of a valid argument may all be false.
Fallacy: definition
A fallacy is an attractive but unreliable piece of reasoning. Writers do not want to make obvious
fallacies in their reasoning, but they are often used unintentionally, or when the writer thinks they can get away with faulty logic.
Fallacy: example
Appeal to authority
Appeal to the bandwagon
Appeal to emotion
Fallacy: effect on text
Fallacy is when someone makes an argument but the argument is based on false or illogical reasoning. Confusing Cause and Effect is a fallacy that occurs when someone claims that because two things typically occur together that one causes the other. However, the two things do not have a cause-effect relationship.
Ad Hominem: definition
Latin for “against the man”. Personally attacking your opponents instead of their arguments. It is an argument that appeals to emotion rather than reason, feeling rather than intellect.
Ad Hominem: example
A senator claims that his new tax plan will help the middle class.
Ad Hominem: effect on text
Used to attack opposing views indirectly, by attacking the individuals or groups that support these views.
Appeal to authority: definition
The claim that because somebody famous supports an idea, the idea must be right. This fallacy is often used in advertising.
Appeal to authority: example
If someone said, “Einstein said ‘God does not play dice with the universe,’ therefore God must exist.”
Appeal to authority: effect on text
Appeal to authority is a common type of fallacy, or an argument based on unsound logic. When writers or speakers use appeal to authority, they are claiming that something must be true because it is believed by someone who said to be an “authority” on the subject.
Appeal to the bandwagon: definition
The claim, as evidence for an idea, that many people believe it, or used to believe it, or do it.
Appeal to the bandwagon: example
Everyone is going to get the new smart phone when it comes out this weekend.
Appeal to the bandwagon: effect on text
Makes the writer’s claim seem less believable
Appeal to emotion: definition
An attempt to replace a logical argument with an appeal to the audience’s emotions. Common emotional appeals are an appeal to sympathy, an appeal to revenge, an appeal to patriotism – basically any emotion can be used as an appeal.
Appeal to emotion: example
Grocery store commercial that shows a happy family sitting around the table at Thanksgiving.
Appeal to emotion effect on text
Pathos represents an appeal to the emotions of an audience. An emotional appeal uses the manipulation of the emotions rather than valid logic to win an argument. Emotional appeal is a logical fallacy, whereby a debater attempts to win an argument by trying to get an emotional reaction from the opponent and audience.
Bad Analogy: definition
Claiming that two situations are highly similar, when they aren’t.
Bad Analogy: example
“We have pure food and drug laws regulating what we put in our bodies; why can’t we have laws to keep musicians from giving us filth for the mind?”
Bad Analogy: effect on text
Makes the writer’s claim less believable.
Cliche thinking: definition
Using as evidence a well-known saying, as if it is proven, or as if it has no exceptions.
Cliche thinking: example
“With experience comes wisdom, and with wisdom comes experience” is not true for everyone’s life. “It’s better to have loved and lost, then to have never loved at all” is a common cliché.
Cliche thinking: effect on text
The effect of using clichés generally closes the mind of the reader down in that it doesn’t present images in a new way or challenge the reader to imagine possibilities that he or she has never imagined before.
False cause: definition
Assuming that because two things happened, the first one caused the second one.
False cause: example
“Before women got the vote, there were no nuclear weapons. Therefore women’s suffrage must have led to nuclear weapons.”
False cause: effect on text
Claiming that the cause is true or false based on what we know about the effect in a claim of causality that has not been properly established. The cause is often an implied claim, and it is this claim that is being deemed true or false, right or wrong.
Hasty generalization: definition
A generalization based on too little or unrepresentative data.
Hasty generalization: example
“My uncle didn’t go to college, and he makes a lot of money. So, people who don’t go to college do just as well as those who do.”
Hasty generalization: effect on text
The hasty generalization fallacy is sometimes called the over-generalization fallacy. It is basically making a claim based on evidence that it just too small. Essentially, you can’t make a claim and say that something is true if you have only an example or two as evidence.
Non Sequitur: definition
A conclusion that does not follow from its premises; an invalid argument.
Non Sequitur: example
If someone asks what it’s like outside and you reply, “It’s 2:00,” you’ve just used a non sequitur or made a statement that does not follow what was being discussed.
Non Sequitur: effect on text
Non sequitur is a literary device that includes statements, sayings, and conclusions that do not follow the fundamental principles of logic and reason. They are frequently used in theater and comedies to create comedic effect.
Slippery Slope: definition
The assumption that once started, a situation will continue to its most extreme possible outcome.
Slippery Slope: example
If I eat this donut today, I’ll probably eat another donut tomorrow. If I eat one donut tomorrow, I might eat several donuts the next day.
Slippery Slope: effect on text
A slippery slope argument (SSA), in logic, critical thinking, political rhetoric, and caselaw, is an argument in which a party asserts that a relatively small first step leads to a chain of related events culminating in some significant (usually negative) effect.
Inductive Argument: definition
An argument in which it is thought that the premises provide reasons supporting the probable truth of the conclusion. In an inductive argument, the premises are intended only to be so strong that, if they are true, then it is unlikely that the conclusion is false.
Inductive Argument: example
“The coin I pulled from the bag is a penny. That coin is a penny. A third coin from the bag is a penny. Therefore, all the coins in the bag are pennies.”
Inductive Argument: effect on text
If an inductive argument is strong, the truth of the premise would mean the conclusion is likely. If an inductive argument is weak, the logic connecting the premise and conclusion is incorrect.
Sound Argument: definition
A deductive argument is said to be sound if it meets two conditions: First, that the line of reasoning from the premises to the conclusion is valid. Second, that the premises are true.
Sound Argument: example
In some states, no felons are eligible voters, that is, eligible to vote.
Sound Argument: effect on text
First, one must ask if the premises provide support for the conclusion by examining the form of the argument. If they do, then the argument is valid. Then, one must ask whether the premises are true or false in actuality. Only if an argument passes both these tests is it sound.
Unstated Premises: definition
Not every argument is fully expressed. Sometimes premises or even conclusions are left unexpressed.
Unstated Premises: example
Socrates is a human. Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
Unstated Premises: effect on text
If one argues that Rover is smart because all dogs are smart, he is leaving unstated that Rover is a dog. Here the unstated premise is no problem; indeed it would probably be obvious in context. But sometimes unstated premises are problematic, particularly if two parties in a discussion are making differing assumptions.
Valid Argument: definition
An argument is valid if the conclusion logically follows from the premises.
Valid Argument: example
The following argument is valid, because it is impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion nevertheless to be false: Elizabeth owns either a Honda or a Saturn. Elizabeth does not own a Honda.
Valid Argument: effect on text
A strong argument is one in which it is nearly impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion false at the same time, which means, of course, that a strong argument can have true premises and and false conclusion, which is the definition of an invalid argument.
