AP Glossary Flashcards
Active Voice
- The subject of the sentence performs the action. This is a more direct and preferred style of writing in most cases. “Anthony drove while Toni searched for the house.” The opposite is passive voice – when the subject of the sentence receives the action. “The car was driven by Anthony.” Passive voice is often overused, resulting in lifeless writing. When possible, try to use active voice.
Allusion
- An indirect reference to something (usually a literary text, although it can be other things commonly known, such as plays, songs, historical events) with which the reader is supposed to be familiar.
Anecdote
- A brief recounting of a relevant episode. Anecdotes are often inserted into fictional or non fictional texts as a way of developing a point or injecting humor.
Anteccedeent
- The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun. The AP language exam occasionally asks for the antecedent of a given pronoun in a long, complex sentence or in a group of sentences. “If I could command the wealth of all the world by lifting my finger, I would not pay such a price for it.” An AP question might read: “What is the antecedent for “it”?
Diction
- Word choice, particularly as an element of style. Different types of words have significant effects on meaning. An essay written in academic diction would be much less colorful, but perhaps more precise than street slang. You should be able to describe an author’s diction. You SHOULD NOT write in your thesis, “The author uses diction…”. This is essentially saying, “The author uses words to write.” (Duh.) Instead, describe the type of diction (for example, formal or informal, ornate or plain).
Colloquial
- Ordinary or familiar type of conversation. A “colloquialism” is a common or familiar type of saying, similar to an adage or an aphorism.
Connotation
- Rather than the dictionary definition (denotation), the associations suggested by a word. Implied meaning rather than literal meaning. (For example, “policeman,” “cop,” and “The
Man” all denote the same literal meaning of police officer, but each has a different connotation.)
Denotation
- The literal, explicit meaning of a word, without its connotations.
Jargon
- The diction used by a group which practices a similar profession or activity. Lawyers speak using particular jargon, as do soccer players.
Vernacular
1, 1. Language or dialect of a particular country. 2. Language or dialect of a regional clan or group. 3. Plain everyday speech.
Didactic
- A term used to describe fiction, nonfiction or poetry that teaches a specific lesson or moral or provides a model of correct behavior or thinking.
Adage
- A folk saying with a lesson. “A rolling stone gathers no moss.”
Similar to aphorism and colloquialism.
Allegory
- A story, fictional or non fictional, in which characters, things, and events represent qualities or concepts. The interaction of these characters, things, and events is meant to reveal an
abstraction or a truth. Animal Farm, by George Orwell, is an allegory.
Aphorism
- A terse statement which expresses a general truth or moral principle. An aphorism can be a memorable summation of the author’s point. Ben Franklin wrote many of these in Poor
Richard’s Almanac, such as “God helps them that help themselves,” and “A watched pot never boils.”
Ellipsis
- The deliberate omission of a word or phrase from prose done for effect by the author. “The whole day, rain, torrents of rain.” The term ellipsis is related to ellipse, which is the three periods used to show omitted text in a quotation.
Euphemism
1, A more agreeable or less offensive substitute for generally unpleasant words or concepts. Sometimes they are used for political correctness. “Physically challenged,” in place of “crippled.” Sometimes a euphemism is used to exaggerate correctness to add humor. “Vertically challenged” in place
of “short.”
Figurative Language
- “Figurative Language” is the opposite of “Literal Language.” Literal language is writing that makes complete sense when you take it at face value. “Figurative Language” is the opposite:
writing that is not meant to be taken literally.
Analogy
- An analogy is a comparison of one pair of variables to a parallel set of variables. When a writer uses an analogy, he or she argues that the relationship between the first pair of variables is the same as the relationship between the second pair of variables. “America is to the world as the hippo is to the jungle.” Similes and metaphors are sometimes also analogies.
Hyperbole
- Exaggeration. “My mother will kill me if I am late.”
Idiom
- A common, often used expression that doesn’t make sense if you take it literally. “I got chewed out by my coach.”
Metaphor
- Making an implied comparison, not using “like,” as,” or other such words. “My feet are popsicles.” An extended metaphor is when the metaphor is continued later in the written work. If I continued to call my feet “my popsicles” in later paragraphs, that would be an extended metaphor. A particularly elaborate extended metaphor is called using conceit.
Metonymy
- Replacing an actual word or idea, with a related word or concept. “Relations between London and Washington have been strained,” does not literally mean relations between
the two cities, but between the leaders of The United States and England. Metonymy is often used with body parts: “I could not understand his tongue,” means his language or his speech.
Synecdoche
- A kind of metonymy when a whole is represented by naming one of its parts, or vice versa. “The cattle rancher owned 500 head.” “Check out my new wheels.”
Simile
- Using words such as “like” or “as” to make a direct comparison between two very different things. “My feet are so cold they feel like popsicles.”
Synesthesia
- a description involving a “crossing of the senses.” Examples: “A purplish scent filled the room.” “I was deafened by his brightly-colored clothing.”
Personification
- Giving human-like qualities to something that is not human. “The tired old truck groaned as it inched up the hill.”
Foreshadowing
- When an author gives hints about what will occur later in a story.
Imagery
- When an author gives hints about what will occur later in a story.
Invective
- A long, emotionally violent, attack using strong, abusive language.
Irony
- When the opposite of what you expect to happen does.
Verbal Irony
- When you say something and mean the opposite/something different. For example, if your gym teacher wants you to run a mile in eight minutes or faster, but calls it a “walk in the park” it would be verbal irony. If your voice tone is bitter, it’s called sarcasm.
Dramatic Irony
- When the audience of a drama, play, movie, etc. knows something that the character doesn’t and would be surprised to find out. For example, in many horror movies, we (the audience) know who the killer is, which the victim-to-be has no idea who is doing the slaying. Sometimes the character trusts the killer completely when (ironically) he/she shouldn’t.
Situational Irony
- Found in the plot (or story line) of a book, story, or movie. Sometimes it makes you laugh because it’s funny how things turn out. (For example, Johnny spent two hours planning on sneaking into the movie theater and missed the movie. When he finally did manage to sneak inside he found out that kids were admitted free that day).
Valid argument
An argument is valid if the conclusion logically follows from the premises.
Unstated premises
Not every argument is fully expressed. Sometimes premises or even conclusions are left unexpressed. If one argues that Rover is smart because all dogs are smart, he is leaving unstated
that Rover is a dog. Here the unstated premise is no problem; indeed it would probably be obvious in context. But sometimes unstated premises are problematic, particularly if two parties in a
discussion are making differing assumptions.
Sound argument
A deductive argument is said to be sound if it meets two conditions: First, that the line of reasoning from the premises to the conclusion is valid. Second, that the premises are true.
Inductive argument
An argument in which it is thought that the premises provide reasons supporting the probable truth of the conclusion. In an inductive argument, the premises are intended only to be so strong that, if they are true, then it is unlikely that the conclusion is false. (also see deductive argument)
Slippery slope
The assumption that once started, a situation will continue to its most extreme possible outcome. “If you drink a glass of wine, then you’ll soon be drinking all the time, and then
you’ll become a homeless alcoholic.”
Non Sequitur
A conclusion that does not follow from its premises; an invalid argument. “Hinduism is one of the world’s largest religious groups. It is also one of the world’s oldest religions. Hinduism helps millions of people lead happier, more productive lives. Therefore the principles of Hinduism must be true.”
Hasty generalization
A generalization based on too little or unrepresentative data. “My uncle didn’t go to college, and he makes a lot of money. So, people who don’t go to college do just as well as those who do.”
False cause
Assuming that because two things happened, the first one caused the second one. (Sequence is not causation.) “Before women got the vote, there were no nuclear weapons.
Therefore women’s suffrage must have led to nuclear weapons.”
Cliche thinking
Using as evidence a well-known saying, as if it is proven, or as if it has no exceptions. “I say: ‘America: love it or leave it.’ Anyone who disagrees with anything our country does must hate America. So maybe they should just move somewhere else.”
Bad analogy
Claiming that two situations are highly similar, when they aren’t. “We have pure food and drug laws regulating what we put in our bodies; why can’t we have laws to keep musicians from giving us filth for the mind?”
Appeal to emotion
An attempt to replace a logical argument with an appeal to the audience’s emotions. Common emotional appeals are an appeal to sympathy, an appeal to revenge, an appeal to patriotism – basically any emotion can be used as an appeal.
Appeal to authority
The claim that because somebody famous supports an idea, the idea must be right. This fallacy is often used in advertising.
Ad hominem
Latin for “against the man”. Personally attacking your opponents instead of their
arguments. It is an argument that appeals to emotion rather than reason, feeling rather than
intellect.
Fallacy
A fallacy is an attractive but unreliable piece of reasoning. Writers do not want to make obvious
fallacies in their reasoning, but they are often used unintentionally, or when the writer thinks they
can get away with faulty logic. Common examples of fallacies include the following
Deductive argument
An argument in which it is thought that the premises provide a guarantee of the truth of the
conclusion. In a deductive argument, the premises are intended to provide support for the
conclusion that is so strong that, if the premises are true, it would be impossible for the conclusion
to be false. (also see inductive argument)
Counterexample
A counterexample is an example that runs counter to (opposes) a generalization, thus falsifying it.
Contradiction
A contradiction occurs when one asserts two mutually exclusive propositions, such as, “Abortion
is wrong and abortion is not wrong.” Since a claim and its contradictory cannot both be true, one
of them must be false.
Conditional Statement
A conditional statement is an if-then statement and consists of two parts, an antecedent and a
consequent. “If you studied hard, then you will pass the test.” Conditional statements are often
used as premises in an argument:
Concession
Accepting at least part or all of an opposing viewpoint. Often used to make one’s own argument
stronger by demonstrating that one is willing to accept what is obviously true and reasonable, even
if it is presented by the opposition. Sometimes also called multiple perspectives because the
author is accepting more than one position as true. Sometimes a concession is immediately
followed by a rebuttal of the concession.
Logos (logical)
means persuading by the use of reasoning, using true premises and valid
arguments. This is generally considered the strongest form of persuasion.
Pathos (emotional)
means persuading by appealing to the reader’s emotions. (Also see
the fallacy of appeal to emotion). An argument that relies too much on emotion, without
any corroborating logos, can become a fallacy.
Ethos (credibility)
means being convinced by the credibility of the author. We tend to
believe people whom we respect. In an appeal to ethos, a writer tries to convince the
audience the he or she someone worth listening to, in other words an authority on the
subject, as well as someone who is likable and worthy of respect. (Also see the fallacy of
appeal to authority.) An argument that relies too heavily on ethos, without any
corroborating logos, can become a fallacy.
Aristotle’s appeals
The goal of argumentative writing is to persuade an audience that one’s ideas are valid, or more
valid than someone else’s. The Greek philosopher Aristotle divided all means of persuasion
(appeals) into three categories - ethos, pathos, and logos.
Conclusion
A conclusion is the end result of the argument – the main point being made. In an
argument one expects that the conclusion will be supported with reasons or premises. Moreover,
these premises will be true and will, in fact, lead to the conclusion.
Premises
Statements offered as reasons to support a conclusion are premises.
Argument
An argument is a piece of reasoning with one or more premises and a conclusion. Essentially,
every essay is an argument that begins with the conclusion (the thesis) and then sets up the
premises. An argument (or the thesis to an argument) is also sometimes called a claim, a position,
or a stance.
Litotes
a particular form of understatement, generated by denying the opposite of the statement
which otherwise would be used. Depending on the tone and context of the usage, litotes either
retains the effect of understatement (Hitting that telephone pole certainly didn’t do your car any
good) or becomes an intensifying expression (The flavors of the mushrooms, herbs, and spices
combine to make the dish not at all disagreeable).
Understatement
The ironic minimizing of fact, understatement presents something as less significant
than it is. The effect can frequently be humorous. “Our defense played valiantly, and held the other team to
merely eight touchdowns in the first quarter.”
Tone
A writer’s attitude toward his subject matter revealed through diction, figurative language and
organization. To identify tone, consider how the piece would sound if read aloud (or how the author wanted
it to sound aloud). Tone can be: playful, serious, businesslike, sarcastic, humorous, formal, somber, etc.
Thesis
The sentence or groups of sentences that directly expresses the author’s opinion, purpose, meaning,
or proposition. It should be short and clear. (also see argument)
Theme
The central idea or message of a work. The theme may be directly stated in nonfiction works,
although not necessarily. It is rarely stated directly in fiction.
Syntax/sentence variety
Grammatical arrangement of words. This is perhaps one of the most difficult
concepts to master. First, a reader should examine the length of sentences (short or long). How does
sentence length and structure relate to tone and meaning. Are they simple, compound, compound-complex
sentences? How do they relate to one another? Syntax is the grouping of words, while diction refers to the
selection of individual words.
Symbol
Anything that represents or stands for something else. Usually a symbol is something concrete
such as an object, actions, character…that represents something more abstract. Examples of symbols
include the Whale in Moby Dick, the river and the jungle in Heart of Darkness, and the Raven in “The
Raven.”
Style
The choices in diction, tone, and syntax that a writer makes. Style may be conscious or unconscious.
Interrogative sentence
Sentences incorporating interrogative pronouns (what, which,
who, whom, and whose). “To whom did you kick the ball?”
Imperative sentence
- Issues a command. “Kick the ball.”
Declarative sentence
- States an idea. It does not give a command or request, nor does it
ask a question. “The ball is round.”
Simple sentence
Contains only one independent clause.
Periodic sentence
When the main idea is not completed until the end of the sentence.
The writer begins with subordinate elements and postpones the main clause. “His
confidence broken, his limbs shaking, his collar wet with perspiration, he doubted
whether he could ever again appear before an audience.” The opposite construction is
called a cumulative sentence.
Cumulative sentence
(also called a loose sentence) When the writer begins with an
independent clause, then adds subordinate elements. “He doubted whether he could ever
again appear before an audience, his confidence broken, his limbs shaking, his collar wet
with perspiration.” The opposite construction is called a periodic sentence.
Complex sentence
Contains only one independent clause and at least one dependent
clause.
Compound sentence
Contains at least two independent clauses but no dependent
clauses.
Balanced sentence
– A sentence in which two parallel elements are set off against each
other like equal weights on a scale. Both parts are parallel grammatically. “If a free
society cannot help the many who are poor, it cannot save the few who are rich.” Also
called parallelism.
Clause
A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. An independent clause
expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent, or subordinate
clause cannot stand alone as a sentence and must be accompanied by an independent clause.
(Example: “Other than baseball, football is my favorite sport.” In this sentence, the independent
clause is “football is my favorite sport” and the dependent
Appositive
A word or group of words placed beside a noun or noun substitute to supplement its
meaning. “Bob, the lumber yard worker, spoke with Judy, an accountant from the city.”
Sentence
A sentence is group of words (including subject and verb) that expresses a complete thought.
Satire
A work that reveals a critical attitude toward some element of life to a humorous effect. It targets
human vices and follies, or social institutions and conventions. Good satire usually has three layers: serious
on the surface; humorous when you discover that it is satire instead of reality; and serious when you discern
the underlying point of the author.
Sarcasm
- A generally bitter comment that is ironically or satirically worded. However, not all satire and
irony are sarcastic. It is the bitter, mocking tone that separates sarcasm from mere verbal irony or satire.
Rhetorical Question
Question not asked for information but for effect. “The angry parent asked the
child, ‘Are you finished interrupting me?’” In this case, the parent does not expect a reply, but simply
wants to draw the child’s attention to the rudeness of interrupting.
Aristotle’s Rhetorical Triangle
The relationships, in any piece of writing,
between the writer, the audience, and the
subject. All analysis of writing is essentially
an analysis of the relationships between the
points on the triangle.
Rhetoric
The art of effective communication.
Pun
When a word that has two or more meanings is used in a humorous way. “My dog has a fur coat
and pants!” “I was stirred by his cooking lesson.”
Polysyndeton
When a writer creates a list of items which are all separated by conjunctions. Normally, a
conjunction is used only before the last item in a list. Examples of polysyndeton: “I walked the dog, and fed
the cat, and milked the cows.” “Or if a soul touch any unclean thing, whether it be a carcass of an unclean
beast, or a carcass of unclean cattle, or the carcass of unclean creeping things…he also shall be unclean.”
Polysyndeton is often used to slow down the pace of the writing and/or add an authoritative tone.
Persona
The fictional mask or narrator that tells a story. Do not confuse with alter-ego.
Parenthetical Idea
Parentheses are used to set off an idea from the rest of the sentence. It is almost
considered an aside…a whisper, and should be used sparingly for effect, rather than repeatedly. Parentheses
can also be used to set off dates and numbers. “In a short time (and the time is getting shorter by the
gallon) America will be out of oil.”
Zuegma (Syllepsis)
When a single word governs or modifies two or more other words, and the
meaning of the first word must change for each of the other words it governs or modifies. “The
butler killed the lights, and then the mistress.” “I quickly dressed myself and the salad.”
Antithesis
Two opposite or contrasting words, phrases, or clauses, or even ideas, with parallel
structure. “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times”
Chiasmus
When the same words are used twice in succession, but the second time, the order of
the words is reversed. “Fair is foul and foul is fair.” “When the going gets tough, the tough get
going.” Also called antimetabole.
Anaphora
Repetition of a word, phrase, or clause at the beginning of two or more sentences or
clauses in a row. This is a deliberate form of repetition and helps make the writer’s point more
coherent. “I came, I saw, I conquered.”
Parallelism
(Also known as parallel structure or balanced sentences.) Sentence construction which
places equal grammatical constructions near each other, or repeats identical grammatical patterns.
Parallelism is used to add emphasis, organization, or sometimes pacing to writing. “Cinderella swept the
floor, dusted the mantle, and beat the rugs.”
Paradox
A seemingly contradictory situation which is actually true.“You can’t get a job without
experience, and you can’t get experience without getting a job.”
Pacing
The speed or tempo of an author’s writing. Writers can use a variety of devices (syntax,
polysyndeton, anaphora, meter) to change the pacing of their words. An author’s pacing can be fast,
sluggish, stabbing, vibrato, staccato, measured, etc.
Oxymoron
– When apparently contradictory terms are grouped together and suggest a paradox – “wise
fool,” “eloquent silence,” “jumbo shrimp.”
Mood
The atmosphere created by the literature and accomplished through word choice (diction). Syntax
is often a creator of mood since word order, sentence length and strength and complexity also affect pacing
and therefore mood. Setting, tone, and events can all affect the mood.
Juxtaposition
Placing things side by side for the purposes of comparison. Authors often use juxtaposition
of ideas or examples in order to make a point.(For example, an author my juxtapose the average day of a
typical American with that of someone in the third world in order to make a point of social commentary).
