AP Glossary Flashcards
active voice
Definition
The subject of the sentence performs the action. This is a more direct and preferred style of writing in most cases.
allusion
Definition
An indirect reference to something (usually a literary text, although it can be other things
commonly-known, such as plays, songs, historical events) with which the reader is supposed to be familiar.
Alter- ego
Definition
A character that is used by the author to speak the author’s own thoughts; when an author speaks directly to the audience through a character.
Anecdote
Definition
- A brief recounting of a relevant episode.
Antecedent
Definition
- The word, phrase, or clause is referred to by a pronoun. The AP language exam occasionally
asks for the antecedent of a given pronoun in a long, complex sentence or in a group of sentences.
Classicism
Definition
–Art or literature characterized by a realistic view of people and the world; sticks to traditional themes and structures
active voice
Example
“Anthony drove while Toni searched for the house.”
Active voice
Effect on text
In most cases, using an active voice will result in shorter, sharper sentences that are easier for the reader to follow. This makes your writing clearer and aids the reader in visualizing what’s happening, especially when you use vivid action verbs.
allusion
Example
“ Chocolate is his kryptonite”
allusion
Effect on text
An allusion can be used as a straightforward device to enhance a text by providing further meaning, but it can also be used in a more complex sense to make an ironic comment on one thing by comparing it to something that is dissimilar.
Classicism
Example-
pictures from Grecce or Ancient Rome
Classicism
Effect on text
I would say that it affects the text by giving a visual explanation or further explanation to the description in the text.
Antecedent
Example
“If I could command the wealth of all the world by lifting my finger, I would not pay such a price for it.”
Anecdote
Example
if a group of coworkers is discussing pets, and one coworker tells a story about how her cat comes downstairs at only a certain time of the night, then that one coworker has just told an anecdote
Anecdote
Effect on the text
Anecdotes are often inserted into fictional or non
fictional texts as a way of developing a point or injecting humor.
Alter- ego
Example
In Shakespeare’s last play, The Tempest, Shakespeare
talks to his audience about his own upcoming retirement, through the main character in the play, Prospero.
Alter- ego
Effect on text
I believe it can affect the text by putting out something behind hidden context but not directly put there for the whole world to instantly understand.
Comic relief
Definition
when a humorous scene is inserted into a serious story, in order to lighten the mood somewhat.
Comic relief
Example
The “gatekeeper scene” in Macbeth is an example of comic relief.
Comic relief
Effect on text
To lighten the mood during a serious plot
Diction
Definition
Word choice, particularly as an element of style. Different types of words have significant effects on meaning.
Diction
Example
“The author uses words to write.” (Duh.) Instead, describe the type of diction (for example, formal or informal, ornate or plain).
Diction
Effect on text
An essay written in academic diction would be much less colorful, but perhaps more precise than street slang. You should be able to describe an author’s diction. You SHOULD NOT write in your thesis, “The author uses diction…”.
Colloquial
Definition
Ordinary or familiar type of conversation.
Colloquial
Example
A “colloquialism” is a common or
a familiar type of saying, similar to an adage or an aphorism.
Colloquial
Effect on text
Colloquial language is used in informal writing situations and creates a conversational tone.
Connotation
Definition
The associations suggested by a
word. Implied meaning rather than literal meaning.
Connotation
Example
(For example, “policeman,” “cop,” and “The
Man” all denote the same literal meaning of police officer, but each has a different connotation.)
Connotation
Effect on text
Using words with different connotations can really change the meaning of a sentence and the tone, which means the attitude of the speaker.
Denotation
Definition
- The literal, explicit meaning of a word, without its connotations.
Denotation
Example
the denotation of the word “blue” is the color blue
Denotation
effect on text
Denotation is another word for the literal, dictionary definition of a word.
Jargon
Definition
The diction used by a group that practices a similar profession or activity.
Jargon
Example
Lawyers speak using particular jargon, as do soccer players. Due diligence: A business term, “due diligence” refers to the research that should be done before making an important business decision
Jargon
Effect on text
Jargon words are meant to enhance communication by simplifying a particular concept.
Vernacular
Definition
1. Language or dialect of a particular country. 2. Language or dialect of a regional
clan or group. 3. Plain everyday speech
Vernacular
example
Vernacular is the use of ordinary, everyday, and plain language in speaking or writing, such as corn is a common name of a plant, and its scientific name is “maize,” or “Zea mays.”
Vernacular
effect on text
Since vernacular language made it easier to convert people to Christianity, it was eventually used over Latin.
Didactic
Definition
- A term used to describe fiction, nonfiction or poetry that teaches a specific lesson or moral or provides a model of correct behavior or thinking.
Didactic
Example
didactic literature includes Aesop’s Fables. Novels written for women in the 18th and 19th centuries were also often didactic, kind of like fictionalized conduct manuals.
Didactic
Effect on text
A didactic text is one that teaches and instructs, and originally, the idea was that learning should be done in an intriguing manner.
Adage
definition
A folk saying with a lesson.
Adage
Example
“A rolling stone gathers no moss.”
Adage
Effect on text
Similar to aphorism and colloquialism.
Allegory
Definition
- A story, fictional or nonfictional, in which characters, things, and events represent
qualities or concepts.
Allegory
Example
Animal Farm, by George Orwell, is an allegory.
Allegory
Effect on text
The interaction of these characters, things, and events are meant to reveal an abstraction or a truth.
Aphorism
Definition
A terse statement that expresses a general truth or moral principle.
Aphorism
Example
Ben Franklin wrote many of these in Poor Richard’s Almanac, such as “God helps them that help themselves,” and “A watched pot never boils.”
Aphorism
Effect on text
An aphorism can be a memorable summation of the author’s point
Ellipsis
Definition
The deliberate omission of a word or phrase from prose is done for effect by the author.
Ellipsis
Example
“The whole day, rain, torrents of rain.”
Ellipsis
Effect on text
The term ellipsis is related to ellipse, which is the three periods used to show omitted text in a quotation.
Euphemism
Definition
- A more agreeable or less offensive substitute for generally unpleasant words or concepts. Sometimes they are used for political correctness.
Euphemism
Example
“Physically challenged,” in place of “crippled.”
Euphemism
Effect on text
Sometimes a euphemism is used to exaggerate correctness to add humor. “Vertically challenged” in place of “short.”
Figurative Language
Definition
“Figurative Language” is the opposite: writing that is not meant to be taken literally.
Figurative Language
Example
So, instead of hearing the wind blow against your window tonight, perhaps you’ll hear the whisper of the wind as it calls out for you like a lover in the night (personification and simile, respectively).
Figurative Language
Effect on text
Figurative language adds the same kind of depth to our writing
Antecedent
Effect on text
By using references such as they, their, them, it, he, and she without any antecedent subject would become confusing. Hence, antecedent makes the composition words, grammar, and the expression of the writers clear and precise, as, without it, a sentence remains vague and cannot convey exact meaning.
Analogy
Definition
- An analogy is a comparison of one pair of variables to a parallel set of variables.
Analogy
Example
“America is to the world as the hippo is to the jungle.” Similes and metaphors are sometimes also analogies.
Analogy
Effect on text
When a writer uses an analogy, he or she argues that the relationship between the first pair of variables is
the same as the relationship between the second pair of variables.
Hyperbole:
Definition
Exaggeration.
Hyperbole:
Example
“My mother will kill me if I am late.”
Hyperbole:
Effect on text
The objective of using hyperbole is to add an amusing effect to the text.
Idiom:
Definition
An often-used expression that doesn’t make sense if you take it literally.
Idiom:
Example
“I got chewed out by my coach.”
Idiom:
Effect on text
idioms can amplify messages in a way that draws readers in and helps to awaken their senses
Metaphor:
Definition
Making an implied comparison, not using “like,” as,” or other such words.
Metaphor:
Example
“My feet are popsicles.”
Metaphor:
Effect on text
Metaphor, which allows writers to convey vivid imagery that transcends literal meanings, creates images that are easier to understand and respond to than literal language. The metaphor expresses nuances for which no standard vocabulary exists, and entices readers to think in abstract ways.
Metonymy
Definition
– Replacing an actual word or idea, with a related word or concept.
Metonymy
Example
“Relations between London and Washington have been strained,” does not literally mean relations between
the two cities, but between the leaders of The United States and England.
Metonymy
Effect on text
Overall, as a literary device, metonymy enhances literary symbolism.
Synecdoche
Definition
A kind of metonymy when a whole is represented by naming one of its parts, or vice versa.
Synecdoche
Example
“The cattle rancher owned 500 head.” “Check out my new wheels.”
Synecdoche
Effect on text
Synecdoche is a helpful device for writers to express a word or idea in a different way by using an aspect of that word or idea. This allows for variation of expression and produces an effect for the reader.
Simile:
Definition
Using words such as “like” or “as” to make a direct comparison between two very different things.
Simile:
Example
“My feet are so cold they feel like popsicles.”
Simile:
Effect on text
The effect of using similes and imagery in a text is that they will make your text more interesting and engaging to readers.
Synesthesia
Definition
a description involving a “crossing of the senses.”
Synesthesia
Example
“A purplish scent filled the room.” “I was deafened by his brightly-colored clothing.”
Synesthesia
Effect on text
If you have synesthesia, you may also feel like you can taste the color of the wall while you look at it. So not only will your primary visual cortex be stimulated by the color, your parietal lobe, which tells you what something tastes like, is stimulated, too.
Personification:
Definition
Giving human-like qualities to something that is not human.
Personification:
Example
“The tired old truck groaned as it inched up the hill.”
Personification:
Effect on text
Personification connects readers with the object that is personified. Personification can make descriptions of non-human entities more vivid, or can help readers understand, sympathize with, or react emotionally to non-human characters.
Foreshadowing
Definition
When an author gives hints about what will occur later in a story.
Foreshadowing
Example
“I told myself this is the end of my trouble, but I didn’t believe myself.”
Foreshadowing
Effect on text
Foreshadowing adds dramatic tension to a story by building anticipation about what might happen next.
Genre
Definition
The major category into which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of literature are prose,
poetry, and drama.
Genre
Example
However, genres can be subdivided as well (poetry can be classified into lyric, dramatic,
narrative, etc.).
Genre
Effect on text
Genre expectations affect both how individuals choose texts to read, and then how those texts are understood
Gothic
Definition
Writing characterized by gloom, mystery, fear and/or death. Also refers to an architectural style
of the middle ages, often seen in cathedrals of this period.
Gothic
Example
the Abbey of St-Denis, Sens Cathedral and Chartres Cathedral
Gothic
Effect on text
Gothic lit often elicits intense, suspenseful feelings of fear, shock, dread, or disgust in the reader. Supernatural Beings. Monsters, demons, witches, ghosts, banshees, vampires, and other supernatural creatures often play parts in Gothic fiction.
Imagery
Definition
Word or words that create a picture in the reader’s mind. Usually this involves the five senses.
Authors often use imagery in conjunction with metaphors, similes, or figures of speech.
Imagery
Example
The autumn leaves are a blanket on the ground.
Imagery
Effect on text
Imagery can make something abstract, like an emotion or theory, seem more concrete and tangible to the reader. By using imagery, writers can evoke the feeling they want to talk about in their readers.
Invective
Definition
A long, emotionally violent, attack using strong, abusive language.
Invective
Example
“A knave, a rascal; an eater of broken meats
Invective
Effect on text
Invective is an important literary device in that the insult can arouse negative emotion in the audience as well as the target of the insult.
Irony
Definition
When the opposite of what you expect to happen does.
Irony
Example
A fire station burns down.
Irony
effect on text
Most forms of irony display a disparity between what the characters think can, should, or will happen and what actually transpires.
Verbal irony
Definition
When you say something and mean the opposite/something different.
Verbal irony
Example
if your gym teacher wants you to run a mile in eight minutes or faster, but calls it a “walk in the park” it would be verbal irony.
Verbal irony
Effect on text
This approach to irony can help the reader gain insight into each character’s personality.
Dramatic irony
Definition
When the audience of a drama, play, movie, etc. knows something that the character doesn’t and would be surprised to find out.
Dramatic irony
Example
in many horror movies, we (the
audience) know who the killer is, which the victim-to-be has no idea who is doing the slaying. Sometimes the character trusts the killer completely when (ironically) he/she shouldn’t.
Dramatic irony
Effect on text
Dramatic irony can stimulate strong emotions in a reader because the reader knows what awaits a character and may see the character act against his or her own well-being.
Situational irony
Definition
Found in the plot (or story line) of a book, story, or movie. Sometimes it makes you laugh because it’s funny how things turn out.
Situational irony
Example
Johnny spent two hours planning on sneaking into the movie theater and missed the movie. When he finally did manage to sneak inside he found out that kids were admitted free that day.
Situational irony
Effect on text
Authors use this device to create a more relatable situation or character within literature. It can also be used to change the tone or mood of a written work.
Juxtaposition
Definition
- Placing things side by side for the purposes of comparison.
Juxtaposition
Example
an author my juxtapose the average day of a
typical American with that of someone in the third world in order to make a point of social commentary).
Juxtaposition
Effect on text
Juxtaposition can have the effect of absurdity or humor, or create a link between elements and images that appear unrelated until they are paired.
Mood
Definition
The atmosphere created by the literature and accomplished through word choice (diction).
Mood
Example
Humorous -Maddening.
Mood
Effect on text
The mood creates an emotional response in the audience and allows for greater understanding of what the author is saying.
Syntax is often a creator of mood since word order, sentence length and strength and complexity also affect pacing and therefore mood. Setting, tone, and events can all affect the mood.
Motif
Definition
– a recurring idea in a piece of literature.
Motif
Examples
In To Kill a Mockingbird, the idea that “you never really
understand another person until you consider things from his or her point of view” is a motif, because the
idea is brought up several times over the course of the novel.
Motif
Effect on text
They must be related to the central idea of the work, and they always end up reinforcing the author’s overall message.
Oxymoron
Definition
When apparently contradictory terms are grouped together and suggest a paradox
Oxymoron
Example
“wise fool,” “eloquent silence,” “jumbo shrimp.”
Oxymoron
Effect on text
The use of oxymorons add playfulness to writing.
Pacing
Definition
The speed or tempo of an author’s writing.
Pacing
Example
An author’s pacing can be fast,
sluggish, stabbing, vibrato, staccato, measured, etc.
Pacing
Effect on text
Pacing affects the mood of your story, helps develop ideas and themes, and allows your readers to connect to the characters and the events that surround them.
Paradox
Definition
A seemingly contradictory situation which is actually true.
Paradox
Example
“You can’t get a job without experience, and you can’t get experience without getting a job.”
Paradox
Effect on text
This literary device is commonly used to engage a reader to discover an underlying logic in a seemingly self-contradictory statement or phrase.
Parallelism
Definition
Sentence construction which
places equal grammatical constructions near each other, or repeats identical grammatical patterns.
Parallelism
Example
“Cinderella swept the floor, dusted the mantle, and beat the rugs.”
Parallelism
Effect on text
Parallelism is used to add emphasis, organization, or sometimes pacing to writing.
Anaphora
Definition
Repetition of a word, phrase, or clause at the beginning of two or more sentences or clauses in a row.
Anaphora
Example
“I came, I saw, I conquered.”
Anaphora
Effect on text
This is a deliberate form of repetition and helps make the writer’s point more coherent.
Chiasmus
Definition
When the same words are used twice in succession, but the second time, the order of the words is reversed.
Chiasmus
Example
“Fair is foul and foul is fair.” “When the going gets tough, the tough get going.”
Chiasmus
Effect on text
A chiasmus is a rhetorical device used to create a stylized writing effect, in which the second part of a sentence is a mirror image of the first.
Antithesis
Definition
- Two opposite or contrasting words, phrases, or clauses, or even ideas, with parallel structure.
Antithesis
Example
“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times”
Antithesis
Effect on text
When used correctly, antithesis highlights the stark difference between opposing ideas by placing them side-by-side in exactly the same structure.
Zuegma (Syllepsis)
Definition
When a single word governs or modifies two or more other words, and the meaning of the first word must change for each of the other words it governs or modifies.
Zuegma (Syllepsis)
Example
“The butler killed the lights, and then the mistress.” “I quickly dressed myself and the salad.”
Zuegma (Syllepsis)
Effect on text
However, if used correctly, it adds flavor to literary texts as it helps produce a dramatic effect, which could possibly be shocking in its result.
Parenthetical Idea
Definition
Parentheses are used to set off an idea from the rest of the sentence.
Parenthetical Idea
Example
“In a short time (and the time is getting shorter by the
gallon) America will be out of oil.”
Parenthetical Idea
Effect on text
It is almost considered an aside a whisper, and should be used sparingly for effect, rather than repeatedly. Parentheses can also be used to set off dates and numbers.
Parody
Definition
An exaggerated imitation of a serious work for humorous purposes. purposes. It borrows words or phrases
from an original, and pokes fun at it.
Parody
Example
This is also a form of allusion, since it is referencing a previous text, event, etc.
Parody
Effect on text
The Simpsons often parody Shakespeare plays. Saturday Night Live also parodies famous persons and events.
Persona
Definition
The fictional mask or narrator that tells a story.
Persona
Example
Another famous example of persona in literature is The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock by T. S. Eliot. In this poem, the speaker is not the poet at all but a clearly defined character.
Persona
Effect on text
A writer’s persona communicates to their audience who they are. It’s not only a chance to give writing a little personality, it is also an opportunity for writers to connect to readers by allowing them to imagine the person who wrote the text they’re now reading (or the character narrating that text).
Poetic device
Definition
– A device used in poetry to manipulate the sound of words, sentences or lines.
Poetic device
Example
Enjambment & End-Stopped Lines
Poetic device
Effect on text
They are literary devices such as grammar, rhythm, structure that aid a poet in creating poetry. Poetic devices may enhance the timing and rhythm of the poem, the meaning of the words or the emotions felt by those reading it.
Alliteration
Definition
The repetition of the same consonant sound at the beginning of words.
Alliteration
Example
“Sally sells sea shells by the sea shore”
Alliteration
Effect on text
Alliteration focuses readers’ attention on a particular section of text. Alliterative sounds create rhythm and mood and can have particular connotations.
Assonance
Definition
The repetition of identical or similar vowel sounds.
Assonance
Example
“From the molten-golden notes”
Assonance
Effect on text
In brief, it develops the internal rhyme that enhances the pleasure of reading. It creates a mood as well as a flow that allows the readers to connect with the subject matter.
Consonance
Definition
The repetition of the same consonant sound at the end of words or within words.
Consonance
Example
“Some late visitor entreating entrance at my chamber door”
Consonance
Effect on text
The repetition of consonant sounds can produce a dramatic auditory effect for readers and listeners.
Onomatopoeia
Definition
The use of a word which imitates or suggests the sound that the thing makes.
Onomatopoeia
Example
Snap, rustle, boom, murmur
Onomatopoeia
Effect on text
It can add excitement, action, and interest by allowing the reader to hear and remember your writing.
Internal rhyme
Definition
When a line of poetry contains a rhyme within a single line.
Internal rhyme
Example
“To the rhyming and the chiming of the bells!”
Internal rhyme
Effect on text
It is employed to heighten the poem’s effect,s and this internal rhyme can take place in the same line or two separate alternating lines.
Slant rhyme
Definition
When a poet creates a rhyme, but the two words do not rhyme exactly – they are merely similar.
Slant rhyme
Example
“I sat upon a stone, / And found my life has gone.”
Slant rhyme
Effect on text
Using a slant rhyme instead catches the reader by surprise and subverts their expectations, delivering a satisfyingly unexpected twist.
End rhyme
Definition
When the last word of two different lines of poetry rhyme.
End rhyme
Example
“Roses are red, violets are blue, / Sugar is sweet, and so are you.”
End rhyme
Effect on text
If they use it throughout the entire poem, then it creates a beautiful rhyming pattern, giving musical quality to the poem, because it adds flow in a perfect rhythmic way.
Rhyme Scheme
Definition
The pattern of a poem’s end rhymes.
Rhyme Scheme
Example
For example, the following lines have a
rhyme scheme of a b a b c d c d:
Rhyme Scheme
Effect on text
In modern free verse, rhyme breaks the pattern and adds unpredictable spice, giving special emphasis to the lines that rhyme.
Stressed and unstressed syllables
Definition
In every word of more than one syllable, one of the syllables is stressed, or said with more force
than the other syllable(s).
Stressed and unstressed syllables
Example
In the name “Nathan,” the first syllable is stressed. In the word “unhappiness,” the second of the four syllables is stressed.
Stressed and unstressed syllables
Effect on text
Changes the tone
Meter
Definition
A regular pattern to the syllables in lines of poetry.
Meter
Example
Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary, (trochaic octameter)
Meter
Effect on text
It also helps writers create poetry with clearly defined structural elements and strong melodic undertones.
Free verse
Definition
Poetry that doesn’t have much meter or rhyme.
Free verse
Example
“The First Time We Kissed” by Kelly Roper
Free verse
Effect on text
Free verse gives a greater freedom for choosing words, and conveying their meanings to the audience. Since it depends upon patterned elements like sounds, phrases, sentences, and words, it is free of artificiality of a typical poetic expression.
Iambic pentameter
Definition
Poetry that is written in lines of 10 syllables, alternating stressed and unstressed syllables.
Iambic pentameter
Example
“Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?”
Iambic pentameter
Effect on text
Iambic pentameter carries a hum-drum, repetitive rhythm. Contrasted with shorter, unpredictable lines, you can create themes of boredom versus excitement, stability versus chaos, and so on.
Sonnet
Definition
A 14 line poem written in iambic pentameter. Usually divided into three quatrains and a couplet.
Sonnet
Example
Death be not proud.” —John Donne. “Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?” —William Shakespeare. “i carry your heart with me(i carry it in / my heart)” —e.e. cummings.
Sonnet
Effect on text
Sonnets usually feature two contrasting characters, events, beliefs or emotions. Poets use the sonnet form to examine the tension that exists between the two elements.
Polysyndeton
Definition
– When a writer creates a list of items which are all separated by conjunctions. Normally, a conjunction is used only before the last item in a list.
Polysyndeton
Example
“I walked the dog, and fed the cat, and milked the cows.” “Or if a soul touch any unclean thing, whether it be a carcass of an unclean beast, or a carcass of unclean cattle, or the carcass of unclean creeping things…he also shall be unclean.”
Polysyndeton
Effect on text
Polysyndeton is often used to slow down the pace of the writing and/or add an authoritative tone.
Pun
Definition
When a word that has two or more meanings is used in a humorous way.
Pun
Example
“My dog has a fur coat and pants!” “I was stirred by his cooking lesson.”
Pun
Effect on text
Pun in poetry is usually used to create sound . It also used to create a comedic effect and also covey a sense of irony.
Rhetoric
Definition
The art of effective communication.
Rhetoric
Example
they might say that a politician is “all rhetoric and no substance,” meaning the politician makes good speeches but doesn’t have good ideas.
Rhetoric
effect on text
Rhetorical analysis helps us look at the text itself but also outside the text at other aspects of the writing situation—context, author, audience, genre—that influenced the way this particular text was written.
Aristotle’s Rhetorical Triangle
Definition
The relationships, in any piece of writing,
between the writer, the audience, and the
subject.
Aristotle’s Rhetorical Triangle
Example
All analysis of writing is essentially
an analysis of the relationships between the
points on the triangle.
Aristotle’s Rhetorical Triangle
Effect on text
Aristotle taught that a speaker’s ability to persuade an audience is based on how well the speaker appeals to that audience in three different areas: logos, ethos, and pathos. Considered together, these appeals form what later rhetoricians have called the rhetorical triangle.
Rhetorical Question
Definition
Question not asked for information but for effect.
Rhetorical Question
Example
“The angry parent asked the child, ‘Are you finished interrupting me?’”
Rhetorical Question
Effect on text
In this case, the parent does not expect a reply, but simply wants to draw the child’s attention to the rudeness of interrupting.
Romanticism
Definition
Art or literature characterized by an idealistic, perhaps unrealistic view of people and the world, and an emphasis on nature.
Romanticism
Example
The publication Lyrical Ballads by Wordsworth and Coleridge.
Romanticism
Effect on text
In literature, Romanticism found recurrent themes in the evocation or criticism of the past, the cult of “sensibility” with its emphasis on women and children, the isolation of the artist or narrator, and respect for nature.
Sarcasm
Definition
A generally bitter comment that is ironically or satirically worded. However, not all satire and irony are sarcastic. It is the bitter, mocking tone that separates sarcasm from mere verbal irony or satire.
Sarcasm
Example
For example, let’s say you see someone struggling to open a door and you ask them, “Do you want help?” If they reply by saying, “No thanks.
Sarcasm
Effect on text
Sarcasm, as linguist Robert Gibbs noted, includes “words used to express something other than and especially the opposite of the literal meaning of a sentence.” A form of irony, it also tends to be directed toward a specific individual. In writing, the signal of sarcasm can be muddied.
Satire
Definition
A work that reveals a critical attitude toward some element of life to a humorous effect.
Satire
Example
Saturday Night Live
Satire
Effect on text
Satire often employs other literary techniques such as irony or metaphor to convey its message. Satirical texts exaggerate or under-play fictional characters or situations that represent real-life people or issues.
Sentence
Definition
A sentence is group of words (including subject and verb) that expresses a complete thought.
Sentence
Example
The train was late
Sentence
Effect on text
When it comes to communicating, sometimes less is more. Think of the importance of sentence structure – short, simple sentences or truncated sentences can create tension, haste or urgency, whereas longer compound or complex sentences are slower, and often feature in formal texts.
Appositive
Definition
A word or group of words placed beside a noun or noun substitute to supplement its meaning.
Appositive
Example
“Bob, the lumber yard worker, spoke with Judy, an accountant from the city.”
Appositive
Effect on text
The function of appositive in literary works is to provide information, which is either essential or additional.
Clause
Definition
A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb.
Clause
Examples
“Other than baseball, football is my favorite sport.” In this sentence, the independent clause is “football is my favorite sport” and the dependent clause is “Other than baseball.”
Clause
Effect on text
An independent clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent, or subordinate clause cannot stand alone as a sentence and must be accompanied by an independent clause.
Balanced sentence
Definition
A sentence in which two parallel elements are set off against each other like equal weights on a scale. Both parts are parallel grammatically.
Balanced sentence
Example
“If a free society cannot help the many who are poor, it cannot save the few who are rich.”
Balanced sentence
Effect on text
A balanced sentence gives rhythmical flow to the text. It draws attention of the readers to the sentence and makes it stand out among the rest. Writers use balanced sentences to emphasize particular ideas to make meanings clear, as well as to create pleasing rhythms.
Compound sentence
Definition
Contains at least two independent clauses but no dependent clauses.
Compound sentence
Example
The pirate captain lost her treasure map, but she still found the buried treasure
Compound sentence
Effect on text
The use of a variety of sentence structures including extended simple sentences, compound sentences and complex sentences create texts that are more interesting and paint a more vivid picture in the reader’s head.
Complex sentence
Definition
Contains only one independent clause and at least one dependent clause.
Complex sentence
Example
Because my coffee was too cold, I heated it in the microwave.
Complex sentence
Effect on text
The use of a variety of sentence structures including extended simple sentences and complex sentences create texts that are more interesting and paint a more vivid picture in the reader’s head. Students are able to confidently enhance their writing by understanding how sentences are structured for effect.
Cumulative sentence
Definition
When the writer begins with an independent clause, then adds subordinate elements.
Cumulative sentence
Example
“He doubted whether he could ever again appear before an audience, his confidence broken, his limbs shaking, his collar wet with perspiration.”
Cumulative sentence
Effect on text
Essentially, you use words, phrases, and clauses to expand on or refine the main idea of the sentence. The effect can be natural as it parallels what often happens in speech
Periodic sentence
Definition
When the main idea is not completed until the end of the sentence. The writer begins with subordinate elements and postpones the main clause.
Periodic sentence
Example
“His confidence is broken, his limbs shaking, his collar wet with perspiration, he doubted whether he could ever again appear before an audience.”
Periodic sentence
Effect on text
A periodic sentence often produces a dramatic tension and suspense to the main point at the end of the sentence.
Simple sentence
Definition
Contains only one independent clause.
Simple sentence
Example
I looked for Mary and Samantha at the bus station.
Simple sentence
Effect on text
short, simple sentences or truncated sentences can create tension, haste, or urgency
Declarative sentence
Definition
States an idea. It does not give a command or request, nor does it ask a question.
Declarative sentence
Example
“The ball is round.”
Declarative sentence
Effect on text
declarative sentences avoid any special emotional impact
Imperative sentence
Definition
Imperative sentence
Imperative sentence
Example
“Kick the ball.”
Imperative sentence
Effect on text
When reading an imperative sentence, it will always sound like the speaker is bossing someone around
Interrogative sentence
Definition
- Sentences incorporating interrogative pronouns (what, which, who, whom, and whose).
Interrogative sentence
Example
“To whom did you kick the ball?”
Interrogative sentence
Effect on text
interrogative sentences force the reader to think about what you have written
Style
Definition
The choices in diction, tone, and syntax that a writer makes. Style may be conscious or unconscious.
Style
Example
Say an author needs to describe a situation where he witnessed a girl picking a flower: She picked a red rose from the ground.
Style
Effect on text
An author’s writing style is not incidental, superficial, or supplementary: style identifies how ideas are embodied in language. In other words, the effect of how an author uses words and literary elements is important for understanding the meaning of a text.
Symbol
Definition
Anything that represents or stands for something else. Usually a symbol is something concrete
such as an object, actions, character…that represents something more abstract.
Symbol
Example
the Whale in Moby Dick, the river and the jungle in Heart of Darkness, and the Raven in “The Raven.”
Symbol
Effect on text
In literature, symbolism is used to produce an impact, which it accomplishes by attaching additional meaning to an action, object, or name.
Syntax/sentence variety
Definition
Grammatical arrangement of words.
Syntax/sentence variety
Example
I have school tomorrow.
Syntax/sentence variety
effect on text
Adding sentence variety to prose can give it life and rhythm. Too many sentences with the same structure and length can grow monotonous for readers. Varying sentence style and structure can also reduce repetition and add emphasis.
Theme
Definition
The central idea or message of a work. The theme may be directly stated in nonfiction works, although not necessarily. It is rarely stated directly in fiction.
Theme
Example
Compassion,Courage,Death and dying, Honesty, Loyalty,
Perseverance, Importance of family, Benefits of hard work.
Theme
Effect on text
Theme is often what creates a memorable and significant experience of a literary work for the reader. Themes are often subject to the reader’s perception and interpretation. This means that readers may find primary and/or secondary themes in a work of literature that the author didn’t intend to convey.
Thesis
Definition
The sentence or groups of sentences that directly expresses the author’s opinion, purpose, meaning,
or proposition. It should be short and clear.
Thesis
Example
To make a peanut butter and jelly sandwich, you must procure the ingredients, find a knife, and spread the condiments
Thesis
Effect on text
A thesis statement tells a reader what the paper will explain, analyze, or argue. It can summarize the essay’s main focus and identify its supporting points.
Tone
Definition
A writer’s attitude toward his subject matter revealed through diction, figurative language and
organization. To identify tone, consider how the piece would sound if read aloud (or how the author wanted
it to sound aloud).
Tone
Example
playful, serious, businesslike, sarcastic, humorous, formal, somber, etc.
Tone
Effect on text
The overall tone of a written message affects the reader just as one’s tone of voice affects the listener in everyday exchanges. Tone is present in all communication activities. Ultimately, the tone of a message is a reflection of the writer and it does affect how the reader will perceive the message.
Understatement
Definition
The ironic minimizing of fact, understatement presents something as less significant than it is. The effect can frequently be humorous.
Understatement
Example
“Our defense played valiantly, and held the other team to
merely eight touchdowns in the first quarter.”
Understatement
Effect on text
When you make an understatement, the issue at hand is minimalized or made to seem less important or severe. This can be done for an ironic effect or simply to be polite.
Litotes
Definition
a particular form of understatement, generated by denying the opposite of the statement which otherwise would be used.
Litotes
Example
(Hitting that telephone pole certainly didn’t do your car any good) or becomes an intensifying expression (The flavors of the mushrooms, herbs, and spices combine to make the dish not at all disagreeable).
Litotes
Effect on text
Depending on the tone and context of the usage, litotes either retains the effect of understatement
Argument
Definition
An argument is a piece of reasoning with one or more premises and a conclusion. Essentially,
every essay is an argument that begins with the conclusion (the thesis) and then sets up the
premises. An argument (or the thesis to an argument) is also sometimes called a claim, a position,
or a stance.
Argument
Example
the subject of an argument might be, “The internet is a good invention.” Then, we support this contention with logical reasons, such as “It is a source of endless information,” and “It is a hub of entertainment,” and so on.
Argument
Effect on text
An argument is a reasoned opinion supported and explained by evidence. To argue in writing is to advance knowledge and ideas in a positive way. Written arguments often fail when they employ ranting rather than reasoning.
Premises
Definition
Statements offered as reasons to support a conclusion are premises.
Premises
Example
All women are Republican. [major premise: false]
Premises
Effect on text
In literature and writing, a premise is the main idea behind a story or other writing project. It is the most basic foundation of a writer’s work—in fiction, it supports the plot; in non fiction, its role is to support the information and/or research that will be presented.
Conclusion:
Definition
A conclusion is the end result of the argument – the main point being made. In an argument one expects that the conclusion will be supported with reasons or premises. Moreover, these premises will be true and will, in fact, lead to the conclusion.
Conclusion:
Example
Essentially, you need to start with your thesis statement, then summarize your main points and arguments, provide an analysis that draws a conclusion, and then wrap it up with a powerful sentence or two
Conclusion:
Effect on text
The function of your paper’s conclusion is to restate the main argument. It reminds the reader of the strengths of your main argument(s) and reiterates the most important evidence supporting those argument(s).
Aristotle’s appeals
Definition
The goal of argumentative writing is to persuade an audience that one’s ideas are valid, or more
valid than someone else’s. The Greek philosopher Aristotle divided all means of persuasion
(appeals) into three categories - ethos, pathos, and logos.
Aristotle’s appeals
Example
Among them are appealing to logos, ethos, and pathos. These appeals are identifiable in almost all arguments. Emotional tone (humor, sarcasm, disappointment, excitement, etc.) The author appeals to logos by defining relevant terms and then supports his claim with numerous citations from authorities.
Aristotle’s appeals
Effect on text
This makes any opposition to the writer’s point of view appear consequently illogical, therefore encouraging the reader to reject it.
Ethos (credibility)
Definition
means being convinced by the credibility of the author. We tend to believe people whom we respect.
Ethos (credibility)
Example
A commercial about a specific brand of toothpaste says that 4 out of 5 dentists use it.
Ethos (credibility)
Effect on text
Ethos or the ethical appeal, means to convince an audience of the author’s credibility or character. An author would use ethos to show to his audience that he is a credible source and is worth listening to.
Pathos (emotional)
Definition
means persuading by appealing to the reader’s emotions.
Pathos (emotional)
Example
“If we don’t move soon, we’re all going to die! Can’t you see how dangerous it would be to stay?”
Pathos (emotional)
Effect on text
it evokes an emotional response from a reader by appealing to empathy, fear, humor, or some other emotion.
Logos (logical)
Definition
means persuading by the use of reasoning, using true premises and valid arguments. This is generally considered the strongest form of persuasion.
Logos (logical)
Example
cites scientific data, methodically walks through the line of reasoning behind their argument
Logos (logical)
Effect on text
Logos appeals to reason. Logos can also be thought of as the text of the argument, as well as how well a writer has argued his/her point. Ethos appeals to the writer’s character. Ethos can also be thought of as the role of the writer in the argument, and how credible his/her argument is.
Concession
Definition
Accepting at least part or all of an opposing viewpoint. Often used to make one’s own argument stronger by demonstrating that one is willing to accept what is obviously true and reasonable, even if it is presented by the opposition. Sometimes also called multiple perspectives because the author is accepting more than one position as true. Sometimes a concession is immediately followed by a rebuttal of the concession.
Concession
Example
A teenager arguing to her parents that she needs a cell phone makes
Concession
Effect on text
the speaker or writer lets readers know that he or she has considered the other side of the argument and understands it
Conditional Statement
Definition
A conditional statement is an if-then statement and consists of two parts, an antecedent and a
consequent.
Conditional Statement
Example
“If you studied hard, then you will pass the test.”
Conditional Statement
Effect on text
he “effect” part of a conditional is called the “result clause,” which explains an outcome that is dependent on the condition described in the other part of the sentence.
Contradiction
Definition
A contradiction occurs when one asserts two mutually exclusive propositions, such as,
Contradiction
Example
“Abortion is wrong and abortion is not wrong.”
Contradiction
Effect on text
When individuals encounter information contradicting their beliefs, they may briefly retain the contradiction, but are likely to revert to their original beliefs over time.
Counterexample
Definition
A counterexample is an example that runs counter to (opposes) a generalization, thus falsifying it.
Counterexample
Example Jane argued that all whales are endangered. Belugas are a type of whale Belugas are not endangered. Therefore, Jane’s argument is unsound.
Counterexample
Effect on text
fact that is inconsistent with a hypothesis and may be used in argument against it.
Deductive argument
Definition
An argument in which it is thought that the premises provide a guarantee of the truth of the conclusion. In a deductive argument, the premises are intended to provide support for the conclusion that is so strong that, if the premises are true, it would be impossible for the conclusion to be false.
Deductive argument
Example
Bachelors are unmarried men. Bill is unmarried. Therefore, Bill is a bachelor.
Deductive argument
Effect on text
A deductive argument is said to be valid if and only if it takes a form that makes it impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion nevertheless to be false.
Fallacy
Definition
A fallacy is an attractive but unreliable piece of reasoning.
Fallacy
Example
“People have been trying for centuries to prove that God exists. But no one has yet been able to prove it Therefore, God does not exist.
Fallacy
Effect on text
Whether a fallacy is an error or a trick, whether it is formal or informal, its use undercuts the validity and soundness of any argument. At the same time, fallacious reasoning can damage the credibility of the speaker/writer and improperly manipulate the emotions of the audience/reader.
Ad hominem:
Definition
Latin for “against the man”. Personally attacking your opponents instead of their arguments. It is an argument that appeals to emotion rather than reason, feeling rather than intellect.
Ad hominem:
Example
A politician arguing that his opponent cannot possibly be a good choice for women because he has a religious conviction that causes him to be pro-life.
Ad hominem:
Effect on text
Typically this term refers to a rhetorical strategy where the speaker attacks the character, motive, or some other attribute of the person making an argument rather than attacking the substance of the argument itself.
Appeal to authority:
Definition
The claim that because somebody famous supports an idea, the idea must be right. This fallacy is often used in advertising.
Appeal to authority:
Example
A commercial claims that a specific brand of cereal is the best way to start the day because athlete Michael Jordan says that it is what he eats every day for breakfast.
Appeal to authority:
Effect on text
When writers or speakers use appeal to authority, they are claiming that something must be true because it is believed by someone who said to be an “authority” on the subject.
Appeal to the bandwagon:
Definition
The claim, as evidence for an idea, that many people believe it, or used to believe it, or do it. In the 1800’s there was a widespread belief that bloodletting cured
sickness. All of these people were not just wrong, but horribly wrong, because in fact it made people sicker. Clearly, the popularity of an idea is no guarantee that it’s right.
Appeal to the bandwagon:
Example
Everyone is going to get the new smart phone when it comes out this weekend.
Appeal to the bandwagon:
Effect on text
attempts to persuade people by making them feel that a product or idea is popular and that everyone else is doing it.
Appeal to emotion:
Definition
An attempt to replace a logical argument with an appeal to the audience’s emotions. Common emotional appeals are an appeal to sympathy, an appeal to revenge, an appeal to patriotism – basically any emotion can be used as an appeal.
Appeal to emotion:
Example
Daughter: “Mom, I’m too full, I can’t eat anymore.”
Mother: “You have to eat everything on your plate; think of all the children in Africa who are starving every day.
Appeal to emotion:
Effect on text
to invoke sympathy from an audience
Bad analogy:
Definition
Claiming that two situations are highly similar, when they aren’t.
Bad analogy:
Example
“We have pure food and drug laws regulating what we put in our bodies; why can’t we have laws to keep
musicians from giving us filth for the mind?”
Bad analogy:
Effect on text
A bad analogy will probably make the text more confusing instead of more understanding for the reader.
Cliche thinking:
Definition
Using as evidence a well-known saying, as if it is proven, or as if it has no exceptions.
Cliche thinking:
example
“I say: ‘America: love it or leave it.’ Anyone who disagrees with anything our country does must hate America. So maybe they should just move somewhere else.”
Cliche thinking:
Effect on text
Text full of clichés makes the writer appear lazy and uncreative and will, for many readers, kill the significance of the writing. If you want your writing to be fresh and interesting, you should avoid using clichés. Try rephrasing your text to make it more concise and original.
False cause:
Definition
Assuming that because two things happened, the first one caused the second one.
False cause:
Example
“Before women got the vote, there were no nuclear weapons. Therefore women’s suffrage must have led to nuclear weapons.”
False cause:
Effect on text
The false cause fallacy is committed when someone makes an argument that tries to establish that factor A causes factor B.
Hasty generalization:
Definition
A generalization based on too little or unrepresentative data.
Hasty generalization:
Example
“My uncle didn’t go to college, and he makes a lot of money. So, people who don’t go to college do just as
well as those who do.”
Hasty generalization:
Effect on text
It is basically making a claim based on evidence that it just too small.
Non Sequitur:
Definition
A conclusion that does not follow from its premises; an invalid argument.
Non Sequitur:
Example
“Hinduism is one of the world’s largest religious groups. It is also one of the world’s oldest religions. Hinduism helps millions of people lead happier, more productive lives. Therefore the principles of Hinduism must be true.”
Non Sequitur:
Effect on text
A non sequitur is a conclusion or reply that doesn’t follow logically from the previous statement.
Slippery slope:
Definition
The assumption that once started, a situation will continue to its most extreme possible outcome.
Slippery slope:
Example
“If you drink a glass of wine, then you’ll soon be drinking all the time, and then you’ll become a homeless alcoholic.”
Slippery slope:
Effect on text
“Because individuals more readily justify small indiscretions as opposed to major ethical, moral disengagement is likely to occur when unethical behavior develops gradually over time rather than abruptly,”
Inductive argument
Definition
An argument in which it is thought that the premises provide reasons supporting the probable truth of the conclusion. In an inductive argument, the premises are intended only to be so strong that, if they are true, then it is unlikely that the conclusion is false.
Inductive argument
Example
“The coin I pulled from the bag is a penny. That coin is a penny. A third coin from the bag is a penny. Therefore, all the coins in the bag are pennies.”
Inductive argument
Effect on text
Lawyers often use inductive reasoning to draw a relationship between facts for which they have evidence and a conclusion. Lawyers often use inductive reasoning to draw a relationship between facts for which they have evidence and a conclusion.
Sound argument
Definition
A deductive argument is said to be sound if it meets two conditions: First, that the line of reasoning from the premises to the conclusion is valid. Second, that the premises are true.
Sound argument
Example
A sound argument is one that is not only valid, but begins with premises that are actually true. The example given about toasters is valid, but not sound. However, the following argument is both valid and sound: In some states, no felons are eligible voters, that is, eligible to vote.
Sound argument
Effect on text
It’s trying to establish conclusive support for its conclusion. Secondly, the argument is valid: the premises, if true, would guarantee that the conclusion is also true. And on top of all that, the premises are actually true. Therefore, a sound argument guarantees that its conclusion is true.
Unstated premises
Definition
Not every argument is fully expressed. Sometimes premises or even conclusions are left unexpressed. Here the unstated premise is no problem; indeed it would probably be obvious in context. But sometimes unstated premises are problematic, particularly if two parties in a
discussion are making differing assumptions.
Unstated premises
Example
If one argues that Rover is smart because all dogs are smart, he is leaving unstated that Rover is a dog.
Unstated premises
Effect on text
Unstated premises are premises that a deductive argument requires, but are not explicitly stated.
Valid argument
Definition
An argument is valid if the conclusion logically follows from the premises. The following argument is valid, because it is impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion to nevertheless be false. We do not know if the argument is sound, because we do not know if the premises are true or not.
Valid argument
Example
Elizabeth owns either a Honda or a Saturn.
Valid argument
Effect on text
In effect, an argument is valid if the truth of the premises logically guarantees the truth of the conclusion.
