AP flashcards
Active Voice
- The subject of the sentence performs the action. This is a more direct and preferred style of
writing in most cases. “Anthony drove while Toni searched for the house.” The opposite is passive voice –
when the subject of the sentence receives the action.
“The car was driven by Anthony.
Allows writing to make a greater impact on the reader as it is the most direct way to convey an idea
Allusion
An indirect reference to something (usually a literary text, although it can be other things
commonly known, such as plays, songs, historical events) with which the reader is supposed to be familiar.
“Ben is just like Benedict Arnold.”
Allusion can add further meaning to something already stated that a reader can easily understand,
Anecdote
A brief recounting of a relevant event.
Bob laughed at the retelling of a story told by his friend,
Anecdotes are often inserted into fictional or non
fictional texts as a way of developing a point or injecting humor.
Antecedent
The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun.
“If I
could command the wealth of all the world by lifting my finger, I would not pay such a price for it.”
Diction
Word choice, particularly as an element of style. Different types of words have significant effects
on meaning.
“This is pathetic/This place is not optimal”
Diction is important to balance the story, provide context, and let the reader know what’s going on
Colloquial
Ordinary or familiar type of conversation. A “colloquialism” is a common or
familiar type of saying, similar to an adage or an aphorism.
“Y’all, Gonna, Wanna”
Colloquial creates a conversational tone
Connotation
Rather than the dictionary definition (denotation), the associations suggested by a
word. Implied meaning rather than literal meaning.
FBI, Feds
Understanding the connotations of words can enhance description, meaning, and tone.
Denotation
The literal, explicit meaning of a word, without its connotations.
“I do not like you”
Denotation provides a clear literal definition
Jargon
The diction used by a group which practices a similar profession or activity.
Athletes such football players use jargons to run plays.
To specialized audiences, jargon is precise and marks professionals in the discipline
Vernacular
Language or dialect of a particular country/Language or dialect of a regional
The majority of Cuba speaks spanish.
The reader/audience can relate more
Didactic
A term used to describe fiction, nonfiction or poetry that teaches a specific lesson or moral or
provides a model of correct behavior or thinking.
“a didactic novel that set out to expose social injustice”
The reader/audience has something to take in or learn
Adage
A folk saying with a lesson.
” Little red riding hood”
Gives cultural expression
Allegory
- A story, fictional or non fictional, in which characters, things, and events represent
qualities or concepts.
“The Tortoise and the Hare”
Gives important lessons that could be used in everyday life
Aphorism
A terse statement which expresses a general truth or moral principle. An aphorism can be a memorable summation of the author’s point.
“
if it ain’t broke, don’t fix it.”
Gives truths that can relate to the world
Ellipsis
The deliberate omission of a word or phrase from prose done for effect by the author.
“We were now on our own…”
Saves space and removes unnecessary material
Euphemism
- A more agreeable or less offensive substitute for generally unpleasant words or concepts.
Poor > Less Fortunate
Removes possible offensive words
Figurative Language
Writing that isn’t meant to be taken literally.
“I’m so energized that I can run around the world”
Figurative language can transform ordinary descriptions into evocative events, enhance the emotional significance of passages, and turn prose into a form of poetry
Analogy
A comparison of one pair of variables to a parallel set of variables. When a writer uses an analogy, he or she argues that the relationship between the first pair of variables is
the same as the relationship between the second pair of variables.
“She’s as blind as a bat”
Draws comparison between two things
Hyperbole
Exaggeration
“It’s a tsunami outside”
Expresses authors/speakers attitude
Idiom
A common, often used expression that doesn’t make sense if you take it literally.
“Don’t beat around the bush”
Forces reader to start reading figuratively.
Metaphor
Making an implied comparison, not using “like,” as,” or other such words.
“My sister is the devil”
Creates images that are easier to understand
Metonymy
– Replacing an actual word or idea, with a related word or concept.
“the pen is mightier than the sword”
Creates vivid images in place of generalities
Synecdoche
A kind of metonymy when a whole is represented by naming one of its parts, or vice versa.
“Hungry mouths to feed”
Allows speakers to emphasize certain parts of a whole while highlighting their importance.
Simile
Using words such as “like” or “as” to make a direct comparison between two very different things.
“As cool as a cucumber”
Helps describes one thing by comparing it to another thing that is unrelated.
Synesthesia
a description involving a “crossing of the senses.”
“A purplish scent
filled the room.” “I was deafened by his brightly-colored clothing.”
Makes the authors images/ideas more vivid when communicating with the reader using their senses
Personification:
Giving human-like qualities to something that is not human.
“The tired old truck
groaned as it inched up the hill.”
Keeps reader/audience invested
Foreshadowing
When an author gives hints about what will occur later in a story.
“Tune in next week to see our heros win”
Keeps reader/audience invested
Imagery
Word or words that create a picture in the reader’s mind. Usually this involves the five senses.
Authors often use imagery in conjunction with metaphors, similes, or figures of speech.
Imagery allows the reader to clearly see, touch, taste, smell, and hear what is happening
Irony
When the opposite of what you expect to happen does.
A cop getting arrested
Twists words, scence, and expected outcome to fit the writers message
Verbal irony
- When you say something and mean the opposite/something different.
If your gym teacher wants you to run a mile in eight minutes or faster, but calls it a “walk in the
park” it would be verbal irony.
The author is able to show more irony through verbal irony, meaning the author can do more to compare and contrast.
Dramatic irony
- When the audience of a drama, play, movie, etc. knows something that the character doesn’t and would be surprised to find out.
If you’re watching a movie about the Titanic and a character leaning on the balcony right before the ship hits the iceberg says, “It’s so beautiful I could just die.
Provides comedy for audience while also sustaining interest
Situational irony
- Found in the plot (or story line) of a book, story, or movie. Sometimes it makes you laugh because it’s funny how things turn out.
A post on Facebook complains about how useless Facebook is.
Allows writers to show the characters intentions versus the outcomes
Juxtaposition
Placing things side by side for the purposes of comparison. Authors often use juxtaposition of ideas or examples in order to make a point.
“You can’t teach a dog new tricks”
Lets readers compare and contrast elements
Oxymoron
When contradictory terms are grouped together and suggest a paradox
“Big Baby”
Gives illumination of conflict
Pacing
The speed/tempo of an author’s writing
The manga has 5 straight months of filler
Controls the rate/speed of the plot
Paradox
A contradictory situation which is actually true
“All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others.”
Allows readers to understand concepts in a different way
Parallelism
Sentence construction which places equal grammatical constructions near each other, or repeats identical grammar patterns.
My dog not only likes to play fetch, but also chase cars.
Adds emphasis, organization, and pacing to writing
Anaphora
Repetition of a word, phrase, or clause at the beginning of two or more sentences/clauses in a row,
“Be bold. Be brief. Be gone.”
To evoke emotion, drives emphasis or nudge readers towards their own emotional imagining.
Chiasmus
When the same words are used twice in succession, but the second time, the order of the words are reversed.
“Let us never negotiate out of fear, but let us never fear to negotiate.”
Adds emphasis to text
Antithesis
Two opposite or contrasting words, phrases, clauses, or even ideas with parallel
“We must learn to live together as brothers or perish together as fools.”
Highlights the difference between opposing ideas by placing them side by side in the same structure
Zeugma (Syllepsis)
When a single word governs or modifies two or more other words, and the meaning of the first word must change for each of the other words it governs or modifies.
“His heart and leg got broken”
Makes the text deeper than first thought
Parenthetical Idea
Parentheses are used to set off an idea from the rest of the sentence.
In a while (a few hours) it’ll be done
Adds informations
Persona
The fictional mask or narrator that tells a story
The narrator of the story was Benjamin
Using personae in your writing is important because characters must have unique personae, with different feelings and voices than you have; otherwise they would really all be you
Polysyndeton
When a writer creates a list of items which are all separated by conjunctions.
I wore a sweater, and a hat, and a scarf, and a pair of boots, and mittens,”
Slows down the pace of the plot
Rhetoric
The art of effective communication
Malala’s acceptance speech to the UN
To inform or persuade an audience/reader
Aristotle’s Rhetorical Triangle
The relationships, in any piece of writing,
between the writer, the audience, and the
subject.
The advocate for the animal shelter was a animal activist
Lets the reader understand why the author might’ve made a peice
Rhetorical Question
Question not asked for information but effect
“Do I look like I was born yesterday ? “
Influences the audience
Sarcasm
A generally bitter comment that is ironically worded
“Oh wow I totally needed your opinion”
Uses irony to mock someone/something or to convey contempt
Pun
When a word that has two or more meanings is used in a humorous way.
“The duck said to the bartender, “put it on my bill”
Adds humor to the text
Satire
A work that reveals a critical attitude toward some element of life to a humorous effect.
Uncle Sam political cartoon
Allows a writer to create awareness of issues and disparities in society
Sentence
A group of words that include a subject and a verb with the purpose to express a complete thought.
“I finished first in the race today”
Completes thoughts and separates words from running on
Appositive
A word or group of words placed beside a noun or noun substitute to supplement its meaning.
The puppy, a golden retriever, is my newest pet
Redefines, renames, or modifies a noun with essential or nonessential information
Clause
A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb
I eat bananas
Expresses a action or a state of being
Balanced sentence
A sentence in which two parallel elements are set off against each other like equal weights on a scale. Both parts are parallel grammatically.
Light is faster, but we are safer.”
Emphasizes particular ideas to make meanings clear, as well as to create pleasing rhythms
Compound sentence
Contains at least two independent clauses but no dependent
clauses.
I like tea, Jen likes soda
Gives your writing a faster pace and unite related ideas together
Complex sentence
Contains only one independent clause and at least one dependant clause
Because he was late again, he would be docked a day’s pay.
Effective way to show that one idea takes precedence over another
Cumulative sentence
When the writer begins with an independent clause, the adds subordinate elements.
She scolded her son, sternly ordering to apologizing.
To expand on or refine with main idea of the sentence.
Periodic sentence
- When the main idea is not completed until the end of the sentence.
In spite of heavy snow and cold temperatures, the game continued.
Adds context to a sentence
Simple sentence
Contains only one independent clause
Jack drank a soda
State a topic straightforward
Declarative sentence
States an idea. It does not give a command or request, nor does it ask a question.
The ball is round
Makes a statement, provides a fact, offers an explanation, o conveys information
Imperative sentence
Issues a command.
“Kick the ball.”
Gives direction
Interrogative sentence
- Sentences incorporating interrogative pronouns (what, which,
who, whom, and whose).
“To whom did you kick the ball?”
Style
- The choices in diction, tone, and syntax that a writer makes. Style may be conscious or unconscious.
How the author chooses to format his text
Determines the mood of a peice
Symbol
Anything that represents or stands for something else. Usually a symbol is something concrete
such as an object, actions, character…that represents something more abstract.
the Whale in Moby Dick, the river and the jungle in Heart of Darkness, and the Raven in “The
Raven.”
Produces impact
Syntax/sentence variety
- Grammatical arrangement of words.
“The boy ran hurriedly”/”Hurriedly the boy ran”
Makes a phrase or sentence pleasant to read
Theme
- The central idea or message of a work. The theme may be directly stated in nonfiction works, although not necessarily. It is rarely stated directly in fiction.
Redemption
Makes a writing piece meaningful
Thesis
The sentence or groups of sentences that directly expresses the author’s opinion, purpose, meaning, or proposition. It should be short and clear.
“Gun laws need to be changed in America” is a thesis
Summarizes the conclusions that the writer has reached about the topic
Tone
- A writer’s attitude toward his subject matter revealed through diction, figurative language and organization.
Dreadful, depressed, warm hearted
Builds a connection between the reader and the writer
Understatement
The ironic minimizing of fact, understatement presents something as less significant than it is. The effect can frequently be humorous.
“This AP calculus is hard”
Downplays a situations when the reader imagines a more intense response.
Litotes
- a particular form of understatement, generated by denying the opposite of the statement which otherwise would be used.
“It’s not rocket science”
A deliberate understatement for effect
Argument
An argument is a piece of reasoning with one or more premises and a conclusion.
The new predator movie is the best
Convinces or move reader to a certain point of view
Premises
Statements offered as reasons to support a conclusion are premises.
A young girl gets swept into a magical world by a tornado and must go on a journey to find a wizard to get home again.
Further supports conclusions
Conclusion
A conclusion is the end result of the argument – the main point being made. In an argument one expects that the conclusion will be supported with reasons or premises. Moreover,
these premises will be true and will, in fact, lead to the conclusion.
In the finale everyone lived happily ever after
Provides a ending
Aristotle’s appeals
The goal of argumentative writing is to persuade an audience that one’s ideas are valid, or more valid than someone else’s. The Greek philosopher Aristotle divided all means of persuasion
(appeals) into three categories - ethos, pathos, and logos.
Pathos is commonly used in animal commercials
Ethos (credibility)
(credibility) means being convinced by the credibility of the author.
Authority and Experience
Conveys the writer’s credibility and authority
Pathos (emotional)
means persuading by appealing to the reader’s emotions.
Most animal commercials uses pathos appeals
Pathos is more likely to increase the chances of your audience: Understanding your point of view
Logos (logical)
(logical) means persuading by the use of reasoning, using true premises and valid arguments. This is generally considered the strongest form of persuasion.
Dogs are mostly found in white households with 64% ownership
Provides evidence to support a argument
Concession
Accepting at least part or all of an opposing viewpoint.
Teslas are faster but I like Nissans better
Can make a argument stronger
Conditional Statement
A conditional statement is an if-then statement and consists of two parts, an antecedent and a
consequent.
“If you studied hard, then you will pass the test.”
Express that one thing is contingent on something else
Contradiction
A contradiction occurs when one asserts two mutually exclusive propositions
“I like burgers, but not the buns”
to recognize when a statement on an issue is logically invalid
Counterexample
A counterexample is an example that runs counter to (opposes) a generalization, thus falsifying it.
The statement that ketchup belongs on a burger can be disproven by finding a burger without ketchup .
Disproves claims and theories
Deductive argument
An argument in which it is thought that the premises provide a guarantee of the truth of the conclusion.
If the first two statements are true, then the conclusion must be true
A way of building an argument from general premises to a conclusion
Fallacy
A fallacy is an attractive but unreliable piece of reasoning.
John supposedly said that there was no test
Forces any reasoning to be reasonable.
Ad hominem:
Latin for “against the man”. Personally attacking your opponents instead of their arguments. It is an argument that appeals to emotion rather than reason, feeling rather than
intellect.
“…and because of that, I will balance the budget in my first year as governor”
“Well you’ve never ran a government so how could you know how to properly budget ?”
Appeal to authority:
The claim that because somebody famous supports an idea, the idea must be right. This fallacy is often used in advertising.
Ryan Reynolds has made multiple mint mobile commercials.
Shows advocacy
Appeal to the bandwagon:
The claim, as evidence for an idea, that many people believe it, or used to believe it, or do it.
Everyone is waiting to get the new pair of overpriced shoes that don’t even look nice but simply because everyone else is.
Convincing a reader that the majority of people agree with the writers argumnt
Appeal to emotion:
An attempt to replace a logical argument with an appeal to the audience’s emotions.
We shouldn’t kill chickens for food because they’re nice.
Bad analogy:
Claiming that two situations are highly similar, when they aren’t.
“Telephones and bananas are shaped similarly, both fitting well to our hands. Therefore, just like the telephones have a designer, bananas must have a designer too.”
Cliche thinking:
Using as evidence a well-known saying, as if it is proven, or as if it has no exceptions.
“Dead as a nail”
Shows lack of unique thought
False cause
Assuming that because two things happened, the first one caused the second one.
People think that a fire at the bottom of the titanic caused it to crash
Disproves theories and claims
Hasty generalization:
A generalization based on too little or unrepresentative data.
When I was young, my dad and brothers never helped with the household chores. All men are useless in the house.
Leads to misinformation
Non Sequitur
A conclusion that does not follow from its premises; an invalid argument.
Since you are a good person, therefore, I’m a good person.\
can denote an abrupt. illogical, or unexpected turn in pot or dialogue
Slippery slope:
The assumption that once started, a situation will continue to its most extreme possible outcome.
Lowering the Voting Age Leads to Babies Voting
Causes moral disagreements
Inductive argument
An argument in which it is thought that the premises provide reasons supporting the probable truth
of the conclusion. In an inductive argument, the premises are intended only to be so strong that, if
they are true, then it is unlikely that the conclusion is false.
Birds always leave to hibernate for the winter so they will this year as well.
Sound argument
A deductive argument is said to be sound if it meets two conditions: First, that the line of reasoning from the premises to the conclusion is valid. Second, that the premises are true.
In some states, no felons are eligible voters, that is, eligible to vote.
Establishes conclusive support
Unstated premises
Not every argument is fully expressed. Sometimes premises or even conclusions are left
unexpressed.
I
f one argues that Rover is smart because all dogs are smart, he is leaving unstated
that Rover is a dog. Here the unstated premise is no problem; indeed it would probably be obvious
in context. But sometimes unstated premises are problematic, particularly if two parties in a
discussion are making differing assumptions.
Valid argument
An argument is valid if the conclusion logically follows from the
premises.
Premise: Either Elizabeth owns a Honda or she owns a Saturn.
Premise: Elizabeth does not own a Honda.
Premise: Therefore, Elizabeth owns a Saturn.
Mood
The atmosphere created by the literature and accomplished through word choice
feeling mad, happy, joyful
establishes a emotional connection between literature piece and reader
Invective
A long, emotionally violent attack using strong, abusive language
You simple minded nincompoop.
Expresses mood
