AP Exam Studying Flashcards
Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act
(1977) requires coal strip mines to reclaim the land
Define preservation
setting aside areas and protecting them from human activities
Define conservation
allowing the use of resources in a responsible manner
Define indicator species
species that serve as early warnings that an ecosystem is being damaged, such as trout
Define keystone species
species whose role in an ecosystem are more important than others, such as sea otters, sea stars, grizzly bears, prairie dogs
Define endangered species and give an example.
a group of organisms in danger of becoming extinct if the situation is not improved; population numbers have dropped below the critical number of organism, such as north spotted owl (loss of old growth forest), bald eagle (thinning of eggs caused by DDT), piping plover (nesting areas threatened by development).
characteristics of endangered species
small range, large territory, or live on an island
Name parts of the hydrologic cycle
evaporation, transpiration, runoff, condensation, precipitation, infiltration.
Define invasive/alien/exotic species and give examples.
non native species to an area; often thrive and disrupt the ecosystem blance, such as kudzu vine, purple loosestrife, African honeybee “killer bee”, water hyacinth, fire ant, zebra mussel, gypsy moth, Asian Long Horned Beetle.
Define ammonification
nitrogen is converted into ammonia by ammonifying bacteria; may occur when nitrogen in organic wastes in the soil are converted to ammonia or when atmospheric nitrogen (N2) is converted to NH3.
define ntrogen fixing.
because atmospheric N2 cannot be used directly by plants it must first be converted into ammonia (NH3) by bacteria (rhizobium or cyanobacteria).
Define assimilation:
inorganic N2 is converted into organic molecules such as DNA/amino acids$proteins - plants assimilate nitrogen as NH4+ or NO3- through their roots; animals (herbivores) assimilate organic nitrogen compounds by eating plants.
Define nitrification
ammonia (NH3) is converted to nitrate ions (NO3-).
Phosphorus does not cirulate as easily as nitrogen because
it does not exist as a gas, but is released by weatering of phosphate (PO4 3-) rocks; this is a sedimentary cycle - it is never found as a gas.
Define denitrification.
bacteria convert nitrate (NO3-) and nitrite (NO2-) back into N2 gas; bacterica convert ammonia (NH3) back into N2 or N20. typically accomplished by anaerobic bacteria.
Define photosynthesis.
plants convert atmospheric carbon (CO2) into complex carbohydrates (glucose C6H12O6); energy is consumed and oxygen is released as a waste product.
How excess phosphorus is added to aquatic ecosystems
runoff of animal wastes, fertilizer, discharge of sweage; limiting factor in freshwater ecosystems; excess P leads to eutrophication.
Define anaerobic respiration
break down of carbohydreates without oxygen; products are methan (CH4), alcohols and other organics.
Define aerobic respiration
O2 consuming producers, consumers and decomposers break down complex organic compounds and convert C back into CO2; energy is released and oxygen is consumed in the process.
Largest reservoirs of Carbon
Carbonate rocks (CO3 2-) rocks first, oceans second.
Define transpiration.
process where water is absorbed by plant roots, moves up through plants, passes through pores (stomata )in leaves or other parts, evaporates into the atmosphere as water vapor.
What is the tragedy of the commons? give examples.
Global commons such as atmosphere and oceans are used by all and owned by none. When no individual has ownership, no one takes responsiblity. Examples: overfishing i the oceans, over pumping of the Ogallala Aquifer.
Define sustainability
The ability to meet the current needs of humanity without compromising the ability of future generations tto meet their needs.
Energy flow in food webs or chains, through trophic systems
only 10% of the usable energy is transferred because usable energy lost as heat (second law); not all biomass is digested and absorbed; predators expend energy to catch prey; the 20% value is an average value.
define natural selection
organisms thta possess favorable adaptations survive and pass them onto the next generation.
Define competition
a type of population interaction, usually over a limited resource; may be intraspecific or interspecific.
Define biotic and abiotic
living and nonliving components of an ecosystem.
Define primary succession
developmnet of communities in a lifeless area not previously inhabited by life or those in which the soil profile is totally destroyed (lava flows); no soil substrate present; begins with licehn action.
Define producer/autotroph.
photosynthetic or chemosynthetic life; chemotroph- organism undergoing chemosynthesis - usually carried out by sulfur bacteria in aphotic zones in the ocean (deep ocean vents, etc.)
Define mutualism
symbiotic relationship where both partners benefit and both participate
Define secondary succession
life progresses where soil remains (clear cut forest, fire, sdisturbed areas)
Define parasitism.
relationship in which one partner obtains nutrients at the expense of the ost.
Define commensalism
symbiotic relationship where one partner benefits and the other is unaffected or may benefit.
Define carrying capacity;
the number of individuals (size of the population) that can be sustained in an area (supported by available resources in the environment)
Define biome
large distinct terrestrial region having similar climate, soil, plants, and animals; terrestrial biomes determining factos are temperature and precipitation.
Define K strategist
reproduce late in life; few offspring; care for offspring; tend to be specialists, longer lifespan.
Define R strategist
reproduce early in life; many small unprotected offspring; tend to be generalists, short lifespan
define negative feedback loop and give example
when a changing in some condition triggers a response that counteracts the changed condition.
warmer earth, more ocean avaporation, more stratus clouds, less sunlight reaches the ground, cooler earth.
Define positive feedback loop and give example
when a change in some condition triggers a response that intensifies the changing condition.
warmer earth, snow melts, less sunlight is reflected and more is absorbed, therefore warmer Earth.
define doubling time.
rule of 70. 70 divided by the percent growth rate.
Define Malthus
said human population increases exponentially, while food supplies increase arithmetically; factors that keep the population in check include war, famine and disease.
Wrold population
7 billion.
Replacement level fertility
the number of children a couple must have to replace themselves.
2.1 developed, 2.7 developing.
biotic potential; total fertility rate.
preindustrial stage.
birth and death rates high, population grows slowly, infant mortality high
us population
310 million.
industrial stage
decline in birth rate, population growth slows
Transitional stage
death rate lower, better health care, population grows fast
Age structure diagrams.
broad base = rapid growth
narrow base = negative growth;
uniform shape = zero growth;
Major age cohorts; pre reproductives, reproductives, post reproductives.
postindustrial stage.
low birth and death rates.
Most important thing affecting population growth
low status of women
First and second most populated countries
China and India
True cost and external costs
harmful environmental side effects that are not reflected in a product’s price.
Ways to decrease birth rate
family planning, contraception, economic rewards and penalties
Electricity generated by fossil fuels , biomass or nuclear power.
heat is produced which creates steam
steam turns a turbine
the mechanical energy from teh turbine is converted to electrical energy in a generator and that energy is transmitted to homes through power lines.
Define cogeneration
using waste heat to make electricty.
Define thermal gradient
spontaneous flow of heat from warmer to cooler bodies
Define hydroelectric power
potential energy of stored water is used to turn a turbine
the mechanical energy fromt he turbine is converted to electrical energy in a generator and that energy is transmitted to homes through power lines.
Define high quality energy
organized and concentrated.can perform useful work (fossil fuel and nuclear )
Define ionizing radiation
enough energy to dislodge electrons from atoms, forming ions; capable of causing cancer (gamma, x rays, UV)
First law of thermodynamics
energy is neither created nor destroyed, but may be converted from one form to another (Law of conservation of energy)
Low quality energy
disorganized, dispersed (heat in ocean or air, win, solar)
Best solutions to energy shortage
conservation, increase efficiency, explore alternative energy options.
Second law of thermodynamics
when energy is changed from one form to another, some useful energy is always degraded into lower quality energy, usually heat
Define natural radiactive dacy.
unstable radioisotopes decay releasing gamma rays, alpha particiles, and beta particles.
Alternate energy sources
wind, solar, waves, biomass, geothermal, fuel cells.
Estimate of how long a radioactive isotope must be sotred until it decays to a safe level
approximately 10 half lives.
Define half life
the time it takes for half of the mass of a radioisotope to decay.
Define mass deficit
not all matter is converted into matter in a fusion reaction, some (the mass deficit) is converted into energy.
Define nuclear fission and fusion
Fission is when nuclei of siotopes split apart when struck by neutrons.
Fusion is when two isotopes of light elements (H) forced together at hgih temperatures till they fuse to form a heavier nucleus (He). Process is expensive; break even point not reached yet.
Three most serious nuclear accidents
Chernobyl, Ukraine (1986) and Three Mile ISland, PA (1979), Fukushima Daiichi (2011)
Major parts of a nuclear reactor
core, control rods, steam generator, turbine, containment building.
Pros of petroleum
relatively cheap, easily transported, high quality energy
Petroleum formation
microscopic aquatic organisms in sediments converted by heat and pressure into a mixture of hydrocarbons (animal remains)
Steps in coal formation
peat, lignite, bituminous, anthracite
Cons of petroleum
reserves will be depleted soon; pollution during drilling, transport and refining; burning makes Co2.
Pesticide pros
saves lives from insect transmitted disease, increases food supply, increases profits for farmers.
Major insecticide groups and examples
chlorinated hydrocarbons (DDT); organophosphates (malathion); carbamates (aldicarb)
Natural pest control
better agricultural practices, genetically resistant plants, natural enemies, biopesticides, sex attractants
Pesticide cons
genetic resistance, ecosystem imbalane, pesticide treadmill, persistence, bioaccumulation, biological magnification.
Particulate Matter
Source: burning fossil fuels and diesel exhaust
Effect: reduces visbility and respiratory irritation
Reduction: filtering, electrostatic precipitators, alternative energy.
In natural ecosystems, methods which control 50-90% of pests
predators, diseases, parasites
Sulfuric Oxides (Sox)
Source: coal burning
Effects: acid depostion, respiratory irritation, damages plants
Equation for acid formation: SO2 + O2 -> SO3 +H2O -> H2SO4.
Reduction: scrubbers, burn low sulfur fuel
Nitrogen Oxides (Nox)
Source: 50% from transportation (exhaust). 50% from industry.
Effects: acidification of lakes, respiratory irritation, leads to photochemical smog and ozone formation
Equation fro acid formation: NO + O2 -> NO2 +H2O -> HNO3
Reduction: selective catalytic reduction unit, more efficient combustion processes like FBC (fluidized bed combustion), lower combustion temperatures, find alternatives to fossil fuels
Ozone (O3)
Formation: secondary pollutant, NO2 + UV -> NO + O* -> O* + O2 -> O3, with VoCs (volatile organic compounds)
Effects: respiratory irritant, plant damage.
Reduction: reduce NO and VOC emissions.
Tropospheric ozone is BAD, stratospheric ozone is GOOD.
Carbon oxides (COx)
Source: auto exhaust, incomplete combustion
Effects: CO binds to hemoglobin, reducing blood’s ability to carry O2; CO2 contributes to global warming.
Reduction: catalytic converter, emissions testing, oxygenated fuel, mass transit, increase efficiencies, find alternatives to fossil fuels.
Define photochemical smog
formed by chemical reactions involving sunlight (NO, VOC, O*); associated with automobile traffic.
Define Radon (Rn)
naturally occurring colorless, odorless, radiactive gas, found in some types of soil and rock, can seep into homes and buildings, formed from the decay of uranium (U), causes cancer and is a problem in the Reading Prong area of PA. Radon decays to Polonium (Po), which is a solid. Po particles sit in lung tissue and are alpha emitters. This leads to lung cancer.
Give green house gases examples and effects.
Water vapor, carbon dioxide, ozone, CFCs, methane,
Effects: trap outgoing infrared (IR, heat) energy, causing earth to warm.
Define acid deposition
caused by sulfuric and nitric acids, resulting in lowered pH of surface waters, soil acidification and destruction of building materials.
Stratospheric ozone depletion
increased UV light that results in skin cancer, cataracts, decreased plant growth (inhibits photosynthesis, decline in Antarctic and Arctic phytoplankton population). impaired immune systems.
Effects of global warming
rising sea level (thermal expansion), extreme weather, drought, famine, extinctions.
Secondary Air Pollutants
produced as a result of ractions that primary air pollutants undergo (include photochemical pollutants O3, PAN and NO2, and acids such as H2SO4 and HNO3).
Primary air pollutants.
produced by humans and nature (CO, CO2, SOx, NOx, hydrocarbons, particulates)
Major source of sulfur
coal burning power plants
Sources of mercury.
burning coal (25% of atmospheric deposition), compact fluorescent bulbs
Pros and cons of chlorine
Alternatives to chlorine disinfection
Good: disinfection of water.
bad: forms trihalomethanes when organics are present in the water; many systems now use chloramines to treat waste water before it is discharged.
Alternatives: ozone or UV light.
Point vs non point sources
Point: from specific location such as a pipe
Nonpoint: from over an area such as runoff.
Effects of ozone depletion:
increased UV light that results in skin cancer, cataracts, decreased plant growht,(inhibits photsynthesis, decline in Antarctic and Arctic phytoplnkton population), impaired immune systems.
Fecal coliform/Enterocuccus bacteria
indicator sewage contamination; found in the intestines of all warm blooded mammals (coliform bacteria)
Eurtophication
may result in rapid algal growth caused by an excess of nitrates and phosphates in water
BOD
Biological oxygen demand, amount of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic decomposers to break down organic materials in water.
Anoxic
no dissovled Osygen in the water
Hypoxia
when aquatic plants die, the BOD rises as aerobic deomposers break down the plants, the dissolved Osygen drops and the water cannot support life; very low DO Levels, dead zone in the Gulf of Mexico.
Ore
A rock that contains a large enough concentration of a mineral making it profitable to mine
Surface mining
cheaper and can remove more minerals; less hazardous to workers
Define leaching
removal of dissolved materials from soil by water moving downwards
Humus
organic, dark material remaining after decomposition by microorganisms
Define loam
perfect agricultural soil with optimal portions of sand, silt, clay (40%, 40%, 20%)
Define illuviation
deposit of leached material in lower soil layers (B horizon)
Organic fertilizer
slow acting and long lasting because the organic remains need time to be decomposed
Soil Profile
Otters Always Burn Calories (sometimes there is an E horizon before the B)
Volcano and Earthquake occurrence
at plate boundaries (divergent = spreading mid ocean ridges_ (convergent : trenches) (transform: sliding, San Andreas)
Salinization of soil
in arid regions, water evaporates leaving slats behind
Food
wheat, rice and corn provide more than half of the calories in the food consumed by the world’s people.
Monoculture
cultivation of a single crop, usually in a large area
Threshold dose
the maximum does that has no measurable effect on a given population
LD50
the amount of a chemical that kills 50% of the animals in a test population within 14 days of the initial dose
Define aquifer
any water bearing layer in the ground; confined or artesian, unconfined or water table
Percent water on earth by type
97.5% seawater. 2.5% freshwater
Cone of depression
lowering of the water table around a pumping well
Ways to conserve water
agricultre: drip, trickle irrigation; industry: recycling; home: use gray water, repair leaks, low flow fixtures. reclaimed water for agriculture and golf courses.
Define subsidence
land sinks as result of over pumping an aquifer
Minamata Bay disease (1932-1968, Japan)
physical and mental impairments caused by methylmercury (CH3Hg) + poisoning.
Salt water intrusion
near the coast, over pumping of grounwater causes saltwater to move into the aquifer.
Main component of municipal solid waste (MSW)
paper; most is landfilled
Hazardous Waste (as defined by RCRA); Mutagen, Teratagen, Carcinogen (in order)
causes hereditary changes through mutations; causes fetus deformities; causes cancer
Incineration advantages
volume of waste reduced by 90% and waste heat can be used.
Love Canal, NY (1950s)
chemicals buried in old canal; school and homes built over it; caused birth defects and cancer.
Best way to solve waste problem
reduce the amounts of waste at the source (source reduction)
Sanitary landfill problems and solutions
problem: leachate, solution: liner with collection system.
problem: methan gas, solution: collect gas and burn
problem: volume of garbage, solution: compact and reduce.
During an El Niño year
trade winds weaken and warm water sloshed back to South America.
Incineration disadvantages
toxic emissions (polyvinyl chloride, dioxins), scrubbers and electrostatic precipitators needed, ash disposal (contains heavy metals)
Effects of El Niño
upwelling decreases disrupting food chains; North U.S. has mild winters, South west U.S. has increased rainfall, less Atlantic hurricanes.
ENSO
El Niño Southern Oscillation, see sawing of air pressure over the S.Pacific.
Describe Forest Fires
Types: Surface, Crown, Ground (in order) usually burn only under growth and leaf litter on forest floor; hot fires, may start on ground but eventually leap from treetop to treetop; go undergroun, may smolder for days or weeks, difficult to detect and extinguish, i.e. peat bags.
During a non El Niño year
easterly trade winds and ocean currents pool warm water in the western Pacific, allowing upwelling of nutrient rich water off the west coast of South America.
Madrid Protocol
(1991) Suspenion of mineral exploration (mining) for 50 years in Antarctica.
Define Temperature Inversion
layer of dense, cool air trapped under a layer of warm dense air, pollution in trapped layer may build to harmful levels; frequent in LS, California and Mexico City, Mexico.
Clean water act
(1972) set maximum permissible amounts of water pollutants that can be discharged into waterways; aims to make surface waters swimmable and fishable.
Safe Drinking Water Act
(1974) set maximum contaminant levels for poluutants in drinking water that may have adverse effects on human health.
Clean Air Act
(1970) set emission standards for cars and limits for release of air pollutants
Ocean Dumping Ban Act
(1988) bans ocean dumping of sewage sludge and industrial waste in the ocean
Montreal Protocol
(1987) phase out of ozone depletting substances
Kyoto Protocol
(2005) controlling global warming by setting greenhouse gas emissions targets for developed countries
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA)
(1980) “Superfund”, designed to identify and clean up abandoned hazardous waste dump sites
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
(1976) controls hazardous waste with a cradle to grave system.
Food Quality Protection Act
(FQPA, 1996) set pesticide limits in food, and all active and inactive ingredients must be screened for estrogenic and endocrine effects.
Nuclear Waste Policy Act
(1982) U.S. government must develop a high level nuclear waste sit (Yucca Mountain)
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)
(1973) lists species that cannot be commercially traded as live specimens or wildlife products.
Endangered Species Act
(1973) identifies threatened and endangered species in the U.S. and puts their protection ahead of economic considerations
Healthy Forest Initiative (HFI)
(Healthy forests Restoration ACt of 2003) thin overstocked stands, clear away vegetation and trees to create shaded fuel breaks, provide funding and guidance to reduce or eliminate hazardous fuels in national forests, improve forest fire fighting, and research ew methods to halt destructive insects.
Magnuson- Stevens Act
(1976) Management of marine fisheries
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants
(2004) seeks to protect human health from the 12 most toxic chemicals (includes 8 chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides/ DDT can by used for Malaria control)
National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)
(1969) Environmental Impact Statements must be dones before any project affecting federal lands can be started.
