AP Exam Cram Flashcards
used introspection (looking inward) to determine the structures of the mind —- understand consciousness by understanding unlying components
Structuralism
Analyze the purpose of the behavior
Functionalism
perceptions, thoughts
cognitive psychology
first female president of the APA
Mary Calkins
1st Female Psychology PhD
Margaret Floy Washburn
natural selection & evolution
Darwin
reformed mental institutions
Dorothea Dix
1st President of the APA, 1st journal
Stanley Hall
father of American psychology, FUNCTIONALIST
william james
father of modern psychology, STRUCTURALIST
Wilhelm Wundt
purpose is to increase knowledge (rats)
basic research
purpose is to help people
applied research
examination of how consistent and stable the results of an assessment are
reliability
how well a test actually measures what it was created to measure
validity
random assignment to conditions is impossible (can’t randomly assign gender)
Quasi
clear, precise definition to allow for REPLICATION
operational definition
assigns participants to control/experimental group at random
random assignment
everyone has a chance to take part in study, increases GENERALIZABILITY
random sample
sample mimics the general population (ethnic, gender, age)
representative sample
if you need to ensure a representative sample, you can separate your population before you sample (ex. make sure you get 80% women and 20% men)
stratified sampling
correlation does not equal ___________ (must do an experience for __________)
Causation
variables increase/decrease together
Positive correlation
as one variable increases, the other decreases
Negative correlation
issues with survey reliability
social desirability & wording effect
Observe people in their own setting (can not determine cause & effect) —- what they’re doing, not WHY
naturalistic observation
left skew created by outliers
neg skew
right skew created by outliers
pos skew
establishes significance (meaningfulness)
inferential statistics
Results are not due to chance (.05 or lower)
statistical significance
ethical guidelines (IRB approval needed)
confidentiality, informed consent, debriefing, deception warranted, no harm
Receive incoming neurotransmitters
dendrites
cell body (including nucleus)
soma
action potential travels down (away) this
axon
speed up action potential down axons
myelin sheath
release neurotransmitters & send signals to next neurons
terminals
sacs inside terminals that contain neurotransmitters
vesicles
movement of Na (salt) & K (potassium) ions across membranes send an electrical charge down the axon
action potential
stimulus must trigger the action potential past its threshold, but does not increase the intensity of the response
all or none law
neuron must rest and reset before it can send another action potential
refractory period
receive sense signals (SAME)
sensory neurons
brain Aceepts signals (SAME)
afferent neurons
signals to move (SAME)
motor neurons
signal Exits brain (SAME)
efferent neurons
cells in spinal cord responsible for reflex loop
interneurons
voluntary movements (which NS)
somatic NS
involuntary actions – heart, lungs, etc. (which NS)
autonomic NS
part of autonomic NS, arouses the body for fight/flight
sympathetic NS
part of autonomic NS, establishes homeostasis after a sympathetic response
parasympathetic NS
chemicals released in synaptic gap received by neurons
neurotransmitters
major inhibitory NT
GABA
major Excitatory NT (clue – get Excited when seeing your mates)
Glutamate
reward & movement
dopamine
moods & emotion
serotonin
memory (think a for Alzheimers)
acetylcholine
sympathetic NS arousal
epinephrine & Norepinephrine
pain control
endorphins
love & bonding
oxytocin
drug that mimics a NT
agonist
drug that blocks a NT
antagonist
unused NTs are taken back up into the sending neuron
reuptake
block reuptake — treatment for depression
SSRIs
movement & balance part of the brain
cerebellum
part of brain that manages vital organs (heart beat, blood pressure)
medulla
bridge between the regions of the brain, basic functions
pons
part of the brain managing alertness
reticular formation
Parts of the ________________: amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus
limbic system
emotions, fear
amygdala
memory (if you saw a HIPPO on CAMPUS you’d REMEMBER it)
hippocampus
reward/pleasure center, eating behaviors – link to endocrine system (regulates ANS by releasing hormones, regulates sleep, respiration, etc.)
hypothalamus
relay center for all sense but SMELL (you MUST use your ______ unless its MUSTY – smelly)
thalamus
outer portion of the brain – higher order though processes
cerebral cortex
vision lobe
occipital
lobe for decision making, planning, judgment, movement, & personality
frontal
lobe for sensations
parietal
lobe for hearing and FACE RECOGNITION
temporal
map of our touch receptors in the parietal lobe
somatosensory cortex
map of our motor receptors in frontal lobe
motor cortex
LEFT HEMISPHERE ONLY – damage results in _____ (damaged speech)
aphasia
inability to produce speech (broken sounding, but understandable), left hem damage
Broca’s area
can’t comprehend speech, left hem damage
Wernicke’s area
bundle of nerves connecting 2 hemispheres, sometimes severed in patients with seizures –> split-brain
corpus callosum
Scientists who did the split-brain experiments
Sperry & Gazzaniga
split brain –> right eye (left hem) = can or can’t say what they saw
CAN
split brain –> left eyes (right hem) = can or can’t say what they saw
CAN’T
identical twins
monozygotic
fraternal twins
dizygotics
sends hormones throughout the body
endocrine system
part of endocrine system, controlled by the hypothalamus, releases growth hormones
pituitary gland
part of endocrine system, related to sympathetic NS, releases adrenaline
adrenal gland
shows brain activity, but isn’t specific
EEG
shows structures of brain (ex. tumors)
CT & MRI
glucose shows brain activity (when in doubt, pick this one)
PET
oxygen shows activity in real time
fMRI
destruction of brain tissue
lesion
state of consciousness: controlled processes, totally aware
higher-level
state of consciousness: automatic processing (daydreaming, phone numbers)
lower-level
state of consciousness: produced through drugs, fatigue, hypnosis
altered states
state of consciousness: sleeping & dreaming
subconscious
brain waves when awake (clue – you betta be awake for the exam)
beta waves
high amplitude brain waves, NREM stages of sleep or relaxation, slower
alpha waves
brain waves that occur during REM sleep
delta waves
entire sleep cycle takes ____ minutes
90
24-hour biological clock of body temperature & sleep
circadian rhythm
controlls the circadian rhythm
Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
falling asleep out of nowhere due to a deficiency in orexin
narcolepsy
Dream Theory: dreaming is a gratification of unconscious desires & needs (latent & manifest content)
Freud’s
hidden meaning behind dreams
latent content
obvious storyline of a dream
manifest content
Dream Theory: brain produces random bursts of energy — dreams start random and then develop meaning (memories in lymbic system)
activation synthesis
Decrease sympathetic NS (alcohol, barbiturates, tranquilizers, opiates)
depressants
Increase sympathetic NS (amphetamines, cocaine, MDMA/ecstasy, caffeine, nicotine)
stimulants
causes hallucinations, less addictive (LSD, marijuana)
hallucinogens
Become addicted to the drug & must have it to avoid withdrawal symptoms (psychological & physiological)
dependence
detection of signal 50% of the time (is it there?)
absolute threshold
can you tell a change is stronger/weaker
Difference threshold / weber’s law
Detection depends on experience, expectations, alertness, etc. (ex. more likely to notice someone at the door when waiting for the pizza guy)
signal detection theory
diminished sensitivity as a result of constant stimulation
sensory adaptation
tendency to see something as part of a group to speed up signal processing
perceptual set
failure to notice something added b/c youre focused on another task
inattentional blindness
visual system pathway of light order
Cornea –> pupil/iris –> lens –> retina –> fovea –> rods –> cones –> bipolar cells –> ganglion –> feature detectors
protects the eyes
cornea
controls light entering eye
pupil/iris
focuses light on retina
lens
contains rods & cones
retina
area of best vision (cones here)
fovea
black/white, dim light
rods
color, bright light
cones
connect rods/cones & ganglion cells
bipolar cells
create optic nerve
ganglion
occurs where the optic nerve leaves the eye
blind spot
Specialized cells that see shapes, lines, etc. in the occipital lobe
feature detectors
Theory of color vision: 3 cones for receiving color (blue, red, green)
trichromatic
theory of color vision: complementary colors are processed in ganglion cells, explains why we see an AFTER IMAGE
opponent process
visual system overwhelms all others (ex. nauseous in IMAX b/c vision trumps vestibular)
visual capture
motion produced by a rapid succession of slightly varying images (animations)
stroboscopic movement
Monocular cue: overlapping images appear closer
interposition
Monocular cue: 2 objects usually similar in size, the smaller is farther away
relative size
Monocular cue: parallel lines converge with distance
linear prespective
Monocular cue: hazy objects appear further away
relative clarity
Monocular cue: coarser objects are closer
texture gradient
Monocular cue: things higher in vision look further away
relative height
Monocular cue: closer objects appear to move faster than farther objects
motion parallax
Binocular Cue: image is cast slightly different on each retina, location of image helps us determine depth
retinal disparity
Binocular Cue: eyes strain more (looking inward) as objects draw nearer
convergence
whole –> smaller parts (prior knowledge)
top-down processing
smaller parts –> whole
bottom-up processing
auditory system pathway of sound
sound –> pinna –> auditory canal –> ear drum –> hammer, anvil, stirrup –> oval window –> cochlea –> auditory nerve –> temporal lobes
ear drum & HAS, bones vibrate to send signal
middle ear
Theory of hearing (in cochlea): hair cells bend to determine sound, high pitches
place theory
Theory of hearing (in cochlea): rate action potentials are sent determines sound, low pitches
frequency theory
illusion, viewers usually estimate that the stick with two open fins is longer, even though the sticks are actually the same length – does not work on cultures without exposure to modern architecture
muller-lyer
illusion, assuming two same length lines are different lengths since the outer lines are converging (appearing to imply distance), occurs due to linear perspective
ponzo
see mouth saying ba or fa overrides what you actually hear (va) due to visual capture
McGurk effect
sense of balance (semicircular canals effect)
vestibular sense
sense of body position (neurons in ligaments effect)
kinesthetic
“gate” to control how much pain is experienced
gate-control theory
5 taste (gustation) receptors
bitter, salty, sweet, sour, umami (savory)
only sense that does not route through the thalamus and instead goes to the temporal lobe & amygdala
smell (olfaction)
whole is greater than the sum of its parts
gestalt psychology
gestalt principle: organize info into figures that stand apart from background
figure/ground
gestalt principle: mentally fill in gaps
closure
gestalt principle: group things together that appear near each other
proximity
gestalt principle: group things together based off looks
similarity
gestalt principle: mentally form a continuous line
continuity
classical conditioning (Pavlov) example
Uncond. stim - food (response without needing to be learned)
Uncond. response - salivate (naturally occurs)
neutral response - bell (normally doesn’t evoke response)
cond. stim. - bell (once NS –> cond)
cond. resp. - salivate (follows a CS)
timing of the pairing NS/CS must be presented .5-1sec BEFORE the US
contiguity
learning the response pairing
acquisition
CR to like stimuli (ex. one dog bit you –> fear all dogs)
generalization
CR to ONLY the CS
discrimination
Rescorla & Wagner, classical conditioning involves cognitive processes
contingency model
John Garcia, predispositions allow classical conditioning to occur in one trial (ex. food poisoning)
Conditioned taste aversion
conditioned a fear in a baby –> behavioral treatments for fear (counterconditioning)
Watson’s (behaviorism) Little Albert
Thorndike, behaviors followed by pos outcomes are strengthened, neg. outcomes weakened
Law of Effect (operant cond)
add something to increase behavior
pos reinforcer
take away something bad/annoying to increase behavior
neg reinforcer
add something bad to dec behavior (ex. spanking)
pos punishment
take away something good to dec behavior (ex. take away car keys)
neg punishment
type of secondary reinforcer that can be exchanged for stuff (ex. token, money)
token reinforcer
reinforcing behaviors that are intrinsically motivating –> stop doing them (ex. give child $$ for reading when they already like to read –> stop reading)
overjustification effect
successive approximations to train behavior
shaping
reward for every response (quick to learn, but quick extinction)
continuous reinforcement schedule
reward every X number of response
fixed ratio schedule
reward every X amount of time passed
fixed interval schedule
reward after a random number of responses (ex. slot machine — best conditioning long term)
variable ratio schedule
reward after a random amount of time has passed (ex. fishing)
variable interval schedule
children imitate behaviors (ex. Bobo doll)
modeling
helping behaviors (modeling)
prosocial
mean behaviors (modeling)
antisocial
Tolman, learning is hidden until useful
latent learning
mental representation of an area, allows navigation if blocked
cognitive maps
Kohler, some learning is through simple intuition
insight learning
no matter what you do, you never get a pos outcome –> give up
learned helplessness
requires no encoding effort (ex. what did you eat for breakfast)
automatic encoding
requires attention for encoding (ex. school work)
effortful encoding
attaching images to info makes it easier to remember (encoding)
imagery
we remember stuff better the more interested we are in it (encoding), ex. remember a cute guy’s phone # better
self-referent encoding
use multiple methods of processing to remember (ex. words & photos)
dual encoding
break info into smaller units to aid in memory (phone #)
chunking
using letters to remember something (ex. PEMDAS)
acronyms
using locations to remember a list of items in order
method of loci
using a rhyme with imagery to remember lists in order
peg-word
where you learn info is where you best remember it
context dependent memory
physical state you were in when learning is when you best remember
state-dependent memory
stores all incoming stimuli that you receive (first you have to pay attention) – iconic & echoic
sensory memory
visual memory, lasts 0.3 seconds
iconic memory
auditory memory, lasts 2-3 seconds
echoic memory
info passes from sensory memory to STM – lasts 30sec, and can remember 7 +/- 2 items
short term memory
memory lasts a lifetime, explicit & implicit
long term memory
long term memory: events
episodic memory
long term memory: facts
semantic memory
unconscious recollection/memories
implicit (nondeclarative)
implicit memory components
classical conditioning, priming, & procedural
info that is seen earlier prepares you to remember something later on
priming
skills (muscle memory)
procedural
memory organization
memory is organized according to hierarchies, linked memories are stored together (semantic networks), & pre-existing concepts of how something should look (schemas)
these neurons in the hippocompus for most memories
acetylcholine
neural basis of memory – connections are strengthened over time with repeated stimulation (more firing of neurons)
long-term potentiation
tendency to remember the beginning (primacy effect) & the end (recency effect) of the list best
serial position effect
particularly vivid memories of highly important events (ex. 9/11)
flashbulb memories
unconsciously buried memories – unreliable
repressed memories
forget info because you never paid attention (encoded it) in the first place
encoding failure
Ebbinghaus, recall decreases rapidly at first, then plateaus after which little is forgotten
forgetting curve
old info blocks new info (encoding) — think PORN
proactive interference
new info blocks old info (encoding) – think PORN
retroactive interference
Loftus, distortion of memory by suggestion or misinformation
misinformation effect
the way a question is posed/contextualized, impacts how info is recalled/perceived
framing
forgets new info
anterograde amnesia
forgets old info
retrograde amnesia
caused by destruction of acetylcholine in hippocampus
Alzheimer’s disease
smallest unit of sound (ex. “ch” in “chat”)
phonemes
smallest unit that carries meaning (ex. -ed means past tense)
morpheme
set of rules by which we derive meaning (ex. -ed makes something past tense)
semantics
two-word stage of speech
telegraphic stage
Theory of Language Dev: skinner, learn language through positive reinforcement (kids imitate what they hear)
behavioral theory
Theory of Language Dev: chomsky, language is innate/biological & we are predisposed to learn
nativistic theory
Theory of Language Dev: time where something must be learned or else it cannot ever happen
critical period
Theory of Language Dev: whorf, language influences the way we think (need words for the past to think of the past)
linguistic determinism
thinking about (reflecting upon) the way you think
metacognition
an ideal example that concepts (mental categories) are compared to (what you first think of)
prototypes
short cut strategy (rule of thumb)
heuristics
make judgment based off your experience
representative heuristic
make judgment based on the thing that first pops in your head
availability heuristic
keep using one strategy to solve a problem – not outside the box
menta set
preexisting beliefs distort logical reasoning by making invalid conclusions
belief bias
belief perseverance vs confirmation bias
BP – belief , contrary evidence shown, belief remains
CB – belief, seek only supporting evidence, belief stays
inductive vs deductive reasoning
inductive: data drives decisions (bottom-up)
deductive: driven by logic (top-down)
Intelligence Theory: 1st to suggest intelligence was inherited (eugenics)
galton
Intelligence Theory:
- crystallized intelligence (language skills & facts – increase with age)
- fluid intelligence (spatial ability, processing speed, abstract thinking – decreases with age)
cattell
Intelligence Theory: general intelligence (g) underlies all mental abilities (typical IQ of today)
spearman’s G Factor
Intelligence Theory: Gardner’s 8 multiple intelligences
linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal (self), interpersonal (others), naturalist
Intelligence Theory:
- analytical (solving problems, what IQ tests assess)
- practical (adapting to real-life demands – street smarts)
- creative (novel solutions, ideas, products)
developed the 1st intelligence test with Terman –> stanford-____ IQ Test
IQ = (mental age / chronological age)100
- chronological actual age
- mental age = tested age compared to others the same age
- average = 100
Binet
developed the WAIS & WISC – most commonly used today
wechsler
high IQ & low IQ
high = above 135
low = below 70
causes of mild intellectual disadvantage
- PKU (liver fails to produce enzyme needed to break down chemicals –> brain damage)
- down syndrome (extra copy of 21st chromosome)
- Fragile X (higher in boys, only one X chromosome)
predicts your abilities to learn a new skill (ASVAB)
aptitude test
administer a test to a representative sample for a basis of meaningful comparison
standardization
2 types of reliability (same results over time)
- spilt-half reliability: compare 2 halves of the test
- test-retest reliability: use the same test on 2 different occasions
2 types of validity (measures what it’s intended to)
- content validity: test measures what you want it to
- predictive validity: accurately predicts a trait
prenatal development
zygote –> embryo –> fetus
natural course of development, occurs no matter what (walking)
maturation
innate reflexes we’re born with
rooting, sucking, swallowing, grasping, Moro (startle), stepping, Babinki (toes spread when foot is touched)
eyes have the most limited development till one year = babies still have to learn depth perception, so they will cross a “cliff”
visual cliff
assimilation vs accommodation (Piaget)
assimilation = incorporate new info into existing schemas
accommodation = adjust existing schemas (create new categories)
Piaget’s Stages: birth - 2 years — focused on exploring the world around them
- lack object permanence
- develop sense of self (recognize self in mirror)
sensorimotor stage
Piaget’s Stages: 2-7 years — use pretend play, developing languages, using intuitive reasoning
- lack conservation (substances remain same despite length, width)
- lack reversibility (reverse math operations – 4+10 vs 10+4)
- egocentric (can’t distinguish one’s own perspective from others)
pre-operational stage
Piaget’s Stages: 7-11 years — use operational thinking, classification, & can think logically in a concrete conext
concrete operational stage
Piaget’s Stages: 11-15 years — use abstract & idealistic thoughts, hypotheticals
formal operational stage
cognitive development is a social process too, which needs interaction with others
Vgotsky’s Developmental Theory
Vgotsky, gap between what a child can do on their own & with support (need scaffolding)
zone of proximal development
patterns of emotional reactions, precursor to personality
temperament
discovered contact comfort is more important than feeding
Harlow
Baumrind’s parenting styles
- authoritarian – my way or the high way –> kids lack initiative
- permissive – kids do whatever –> kids lack initiative
- authoritative – give & take –> kids become socially compotent & reliable
Mary Ainsworth: strange situation paradigm –> attachment styles
- secure (60%) – upset when mom leaves, easily calmed on return –> more stable adults
- avoidant– avoids mom, doesn’t care when she leaves
- ambivalent – avoids mom, freaks out when she leaves
- disorganized – confused, fearful, dazed – result of abuse
Kohlberg’s Moral Development: children, follow rules to avoid punishment
pre-conventional morality
Kohlberg’s Moral Development: adolescents, follow rules because it’s the law or to gain social approval
conventional morality
Kohlberg’s Moral Development: adults, do what they believe is right (even if it goes against society)
post-conventional morality
moral reasoning & moral behaviors are 2 different things (what you say isn’t always what you do) — kind of like cognitive dissonance
Carol Gilligan
Erikson’s socioemotional development: each stage results in competence or weakness
- Trust vs Mistrust: needs met = infants develop basic trust
- autonomy vs shame/doubt: learn to exercise will (ex. “I want to do it!!” & pours milk)
- initiative vs guilt: initiate tasks & carry out plans (“why” kids)
- industry vs inferiority: learn what you’re good at
- identity vs role confusion: tests roles & form an identity
- intimacy vs isolation: close relationships & gain a capacity for love
- Generativity vs stagnation: contributing to the world through family & work — mid-life crisis time
- integrity vs despair: reflect on life and feel satisfied or like a failure
we learn gender roles & identity from those around us
social learning theory
aging: cells have a maximum # of divisions before they can’t anymore
cellular clock theory
aging: unstable oxygen molecules within cells damage DNA
free-radical theory
studies people of different ages at the same point in time
- adv: inexpensive & quick
- disadv: can be differences due to generational gap
cross-sectional study
studies same people over time
- adv: eliminates cohort differences, lots of detail
- disadv: expensive, time-consuming, high drop out rates
longitudinal study
Theory of motivation: complex behaviors have fixed patterns & are not learned (animal motivation)
instinct
Theory of motivation: physiological need created aroused tension, motivating you to satisfy the need to maintain homeostasis
drive reduction
Theory of motivation: driven by external rewards
- intrinsic = do it because you like it
- extrinsic = obtain a reward
incentive theory
Theory of motivation: Festinger, 2 opposing thoughts conflict with each other, causing discomfort–> trying to justify situation
cognitive dissonance
Theory of motivation: humans seek optimum levels of arousal – easier tasks = more arousal, harder = less arousal
Yerkes Dodson Law
Theory of motivation: Maslow, needs lower in the pyramid have priority over higher needs
physiological –> safety –> love/belonging –> esteem –> self-actualization –> self-transcendence
hierarchy of needs
hormones singlaing to eat (GO eat)
ghrelin, orexin
hormones signaling to stop eating (Lets Pack it up)
leptin, PYY
stimulated = makes you hungry (i’m LATE for lunch so i’m hungry)
lateral hypothalamus
stimulated = feel full (not hungry)
ventromedial hypothalamus
control system dictates how much fat you should carry – every person is diff, makes it hard to lose weight
set point
stimulation of this part of the brain –> inc sexual behavior, destruction –> sexual inhibition
hypothalamus
sexual response pattern
excitement –> plateau –> orgasm –> refractory
Kinsey created a scale of __________, lacked a representative sample
homosexuality
aware of stimulus & physiological response (arousal) –> emotion
James-Lange Theory
emotions simultaneously occur with physiological response (SNS)
Cannon-Bard
physio arousal + explanation for arousal –> emotions
Schacter Two Factor
cognitive appraisal –> physio response & emotion (ex. given pop quiz, realize you know it –> happy)
Lazarus
Eckman, 6 universal emotions seen across all cultures
happiness, anger, sadness, surprise, disgust, fear
some stimuli routed directly to amygdala (ex. seeing a spider)
Le Doux
being forced to smile will make you happier
facial feedback hypothesis
culture’s norms of how to express certain emotions
display rules
psych of work – employee recruitment, training, satisfaction, productivity
industrial / organizational psych
focuses on safety & efficiency of human-machine interaction
ergonomics / human factors
productivity inc when workers feel important (ex. teacher teaches when principal is present)
Hawthorne effect
Extrinsic motivation, manager control employees & enforces rules (eXtrinsic)
Theory X Management
intrinsic motivation, manager gives responsibilities & looks for input
Theory Y Management
Selye’s GAS – 3 phases of stress response
- alarm: freak out in response to stressor
- resistance: dealing with stress
- exhaustion: can not take it anymore & give up
Type A & B personalities (not valid today)
- A: rigid, stressful person, perfectionist – risk for heart disease
- B: laid back, nonstressed
Lewin’s theories of conflict
Approach-Approach: win-win situation, pick one
- approach-avoidance: win-lose, outcome has positive and negative aspects
- avoidance-avoidance: lose-lose, both outcomes are bad but you have to choose one
- Multiple approach-avoidance: 2+ win-lose situations, but which to choose (ex. college decision)
available to be called into awareness/conscious
preconscious
Freud’s id, ego, & superego
- id: hidden desires, pleasure principle
- ego: reality principle
- superego: moral conscious
transform unacceptable motive to opposite (fears sexual urges their experiencing –> veryyyy religious)
reaction formation
displacement vs sublimation
- displacement = take feeling out on someone else (anger –> kick dog)
- Sublimation = replace unacceptable urges with socially acceptable ones (ex. kickboxing)
Freud’s Psychosexual stages
- oral: focus on the mouth (entirely id)
- anal: defecation (ego forms)
- phallic: genitals focused (superego forms)
- latency: time out, personality is set
- genital: sexual reawakening, oedipal & electra complexes are repressed
phallic stage, young boys identify with father out of fear (castration anxiety)
oedipal complex
phallic stage, young girls identify with mother because they can’t with their father (penis envy)
electra complex
stuck in an earlier Freudian stage, influencing personality (ex. anal = “anal retentive”)
fixation
psychoanalysis is analyzed through the use of: (subjective –> unreliable)
free association, transference, dream interpretation, & projective tests (TAT & Rorschach inkblot)
tell a story about a vague picture, psychoanalysis technique
Thematic apperception test (TAT)
Neo-Freudian: collective unconscious (shared reservoir of memories, explains shared myths)
Jung
Neo-Freudian: personality develops in social relationships, NOT sexual urges (security, not sex, is the motivation)
Horney
inferiority complex
Adler
Big 5 traits (OCEAN) – ignores the role of situation in behavior
- openness (high = imaginative, independent)
- conscientiousness (high = organized, careful, disciplined)
- Extraversion (high = sociable, fun-loving, affectionate)
- Agreeableness (high = soft-hearted, trusting, helpful)
- Neuroticism (emotional stability)
test for trait theory using:
personality inventories (MMPI)
talked about self-concept (idea of who you are) as the center of personality, humanist
Rogers
actual (social) self vs ideal (true) self
actual: what others see
Ideal: who you WANT to be
pos vs neg self-concept
pos: perceive world positively (optimist)
neg: dissatisfied & unhappy
Behavior is a complex interaction of inner process & environmental influence –> personality, emphasizes conscious awareness, expectations, & goals
disadv: too specific, can’t generalize
observations & interviews
social-cognitive perspective
Bandura, interaction of behaviors, cognitions, & enviro make up you
reciprocal determinism
**COMMON FRQ TERM
belief one can succeed so you ensure you do through actions
self-efficacy
disturbance in cognition/emotional regulation/behavior AND distress/disability in social situations/work
abnormal behavior
Manual listing all accepted psych disorders – classifies them based on criteria, NO explanation of causes or treatments
DSM (V currently)
reform movement, helped reform psychiatric care
Dorothea dix
individuals purposefully got admitted into institutions –> reforms
Rosenhan study
anxiety disorders
- Generalized: anxious all the time, NO REASON
- panic disorder: frequent panic attacks
- agoraphobia: anxiety being in places you can not escape (public places / people)
- phobias: irrational fear disrupting life
somatoform disorders (no physical cause)
- conversion: loss of feeling or usage of body part with no physiological cause
- illness anxiety: obsess over possibility of having an illness but no phyical symptoms
- somatic symptom: interprets normal symptoms as a major disease
dissociative disorders
- DID: several different personalities with no awareness of each other
- Dissociative Amnesia & Fugue: new life & personality with no memory of previous one due to trauma
schizophrenia positive symptoms
something added
- hallucinations
- delusions
- disorganized thinking/speech
schizophrenia negative symptoms
something taken away
- flat affect
- impaired decision-making, inability to pay attention
schizophrenia symptom, become frozen over periods of time (waxy flexibility)
catatonia
some possible causes of schizophrenia
- too much dopamine
- Diathesis-Stress: genetic predisposition that must be “turned-on” by enviro stimuli
depressive disorders
- major depressive: extreme sadness & despair, apathy towards life
- disruptive mood regulation: frequent temper tantrums inconsistent with developmental level
- seasonal affective: occurs typically in winter, light therapy
bipolar disorders
- bipolar: severe depression & mania (heightened mood, risky behaviors)
due to lower levels of serotonin & norepinephrine
personality disorders
disruptive, inflexible, enduring behavior patterns = difficult to treat
- antisocial: disregard for others, manipulative
- borderline: unstable interpersonal relationships & self-image
- histrionic: excessive emotionality & attention seeking
- narcissistic: need for admiration & lack of empathy
humanistic disorder treatment, developed by Rogers, active listening & focus on personal growth
client-centered therapy
cognitive disorder treatment, developed by Ellis, analyze self-defeating behaviors to change THOUGHT PATTERNS, best for anxiety disorders
rational-emotional therapy
Cognitive disorder treatment, developed by Beck, illogical thoughts –> psych problems, challenges those thoughts, best for depression, self-directed (you figure out errors)
cognitive therapy
behavior approach for disorders, associate pleasant/relaxed state with gradually inc anxiety-triggering stimuli
systematic desensitization
antipsychotics
decrease dopamine to treat schizophrenia, side effects = tardive dyskinesia (hand tremors)
mood stabilizers
treat bipolar disorder using lithium
anti-anxiety medication
depress the CNS (xanax, ativan)
anti-depressants
increase serotonin through reuptake inhibition
SSRIs
send electricity to induce minor seizures, used to treat depression (rare)
ECT
explain others behaviors by crediting the situation or person’s internal disposition (ex. they only passed b/c they cheated)
attribution theory
when it’s others, blame the person — when it’s you, blame the situation
actor-observer bias
observers underestimate the importance of the situation & overestimate the impact of personal disposition
fundamental attribution error
central route vs peripheral route to persuasion
- central: change attitudes through logical arguments & explanations
- peripheral: change through incidental cues (like attractiveness)– more temporary
if your first impression of someone is good, you’ll interpret other info about them in a good way
halo effect
normative vs informational social influence
- normative: conform to gain social approval or not stand out (be part of the norm)
- informational: conform b/c we think their opinions must be right
Milgram experiment, administer shocks because they were told to by authority
obedience
people in a group exert less effort when pooling their effort together
social loafing
loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in a group to foster anonymity (mob mentality)
deindividuation
more time with group = stronger their thoughts/opinions become
group polarization
believe the world is just and people get what they deserve
just-world phenomenon
hostile vs instrumental aggression
- hostile: emotional/impulsive anger
- instrumental: premeditated
more people around us = less likely to help someone
bystander effect
social behavior is an exchange process – aim is to maximize benefits & minimize costs
social exchange theory
conflicting parties pursue own interests –> destruction (lose-lose)
social trap
overestimate the degree everyone else thinks/acts the way we do
false-consensus effect
