AP Biology Final Exam Terms Flashcards
1
Q
behavioral ecology
A
study of interaction between animals and their environments
2
Q
ethology
A
study of animal behavior
3
Q
fixed-action pettern
A
preprogrammed response to a stimulus (stickleback fish)
4
Q
habituation
A
loss of responsiveness to unimportant stimuli or stimuli that provide no feedback
5
Q
imprinting
A
innate behavior learned during critical period early in life (baby ducks imprint to mother ducks)
6
Q
associative learning
A
one stimulus is associated with another (classical conditioning - Pavlov)
7
Q
operant conditioning
A
trial-and-error learning (aposometric predator training)
8
Q
insight learning
A
ability to reason through a problem the first time through with no prior experience
9
Q
observational learning
A
learning by watching someone else do it first
10
Q
kinesis
A
change in speed of movement in response to a stimulus; organisms move faster in bad environments and slower in good environments
11
Q
migration
A
cyclic movement of animals over long distances according to the time of year
12
Q
taxis
A
reflex movement toward or away from a stimulus
13
Q
agnostic behavior
A
conflict behavior over access to a resource; often a metter of which animal can mount the most threatening display and scare the other into submission
14
Q
dominance hierarchies
A
ranking of power among the members of a group; subject to change; since members of the group know the order, less energy is wasted in conflicts over food and resources
15
Q
territoriality
A
defense of territory to keep others out
16
Q
altruistic behavior
A
action in which an organism helps another at its own expense
17
Q
reciprocal altruism
A
animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives hoping that the favor will be returned come time in the future
18
Q
foraging
A
feeding behavior of an individual; animals have a search image that directs them to food
19
Q
optimal foraging
A
natural selection favors those who choose foraging strategies that maximize the differential between costs and benefits; if the effort involved in obtaining food outweighs the nutritive value of the food, “forget about it”
20
Q
inclusive fitness
A
the ability of individuals to pass their genes not only through the production of their own offspring, but also by providing aid to enable closely related individuals to produce offspring
21
Q
coefficient of relatedness
A
statistic that represents the average proportion of genes two individuals have in common; the higher the value, the more likely they are to altruistically aid one another
22
Q
chemical communication
A
communication through the use of chemical signals, such as pheromones
23
Q
visual communication
A
communication through the use of visual cues, such as the tail feather displays of peacocks
24
Q
auditory communication
A
communication through the use of sound, such as the chirping of frogs in the summer
25
tactile communication
communication through the use of touch, such as a handshake in humans
26
population
collection of individuals of the same species living in the same geographic area
27
community
collection of populations of species in a geographic area
28
ecosystem
community + environment
29
biosphere
communities + ecosystems of planet
30
biotic components
living organisms of ecosystem
31
abiotic components
nonliving players in ecosystem
32
clumped dispersion
animals live in packs spaced from each other (e.g. cattle)
33
uniform distribution
species are evenly spaced out across an area (e.g. birds on a wire)
34
random distribution
species are randomly distributed across an area (e.g. trees in a forest)
35
biotic potential
maximum growth rate for a population
36
carrying capacity
maximum number of individuals that a population can sustain in a given environment
37
density-dependent limiting factors
food, waste, disease
38
density-independent limiting factors
weather, natural disasters
39
exponential population growth
J-shaped curve, unlimited growth
40
logistic population growth
S-shaped curve, limited growth
41
K-selected populations
constant size, low reproductive rate, extensive postnatal care (e.g. humans)
42
R-selected populations
rapid growth, J-curve style, little postnatal care, reproduce quickly, die quickly (e.g. bacteria)
43
Type I survivorship curve
live long life, until age is reached where death increases rapidly (e.g. humans, large mammals)
44
Type II survivorship curve
constant death rate across the age spectrum (e.g. lizards, hydra. small mammals)
45
Type III survivorship curve
steep downward death rate for young individuals that flattens out at certain age (e.g. fish, oysters)
46
parastism
one organism benefits at another’s expense (e.g. tapeworms and humans)
47
commensalism
one organism benefits while the other is unaffected (e.g. cattle egrets and cattle)
48
mutualism
both organisms reap benefits from the interaction (e.g. acacia trees and ants, lichen)
49
predation
one species, the predator, hunts the other, the prey
50
cryptic coloration
coloring scheme that allows organism to blend into colors of environment
51
deceptive markings
patterns that cause an animal to appear larger or more dangerous than it really is
52
aposematic coloration
warning coloration adopted by animals that possess a chemical defense mechanism
53
Batesian mimicry
animal that is harmless copies the appearance of an animal that is dangerous
54
Müllerian mimicry
two aposemetrically colored species have a similar coloration pattern
55
primary succession
occurs in an area devoid of life that contains no soil; pioneer species come in, add nutrients, and are replaced by future species, which attract animals to the area, thus adding more nutrients; constant changing go guards until the climax community is reached and a steady-state equilibrium is achieved
56
secondary succession
occurs in area that once had stable life but was disturbed by major force (fire)
57
desert
driest land biome
58
taiga
lengthy cold, wet winters; lots of conifers
59
temperate grasslands
most fertile soil
60
tundra
permafrost, cold winters, short shrubs
61
savanna
grasslands, home to herbivores
62
deciduous forest
cold winters/warm summers
63
tropical forest
greatest diversity of species
64
water biomes
freshwater and marine biomes of earth
65
trophic levels
hierarchy of energy levels on a planet; energy level decreases from bottom to top; primary producers (bottom) > primary consumers (herbivores) > secondary consumers > tertiary consumers > decomposers
66
organic compounds
contain carbon; examples include lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates
67
functional groups
amino (NH2), carbonyl (RCOR), carboxyl (COOH), hydroxyl (OH), phosphate (PO4), sulfhydryl (SH)
68
fat
glycerol + 3 fatty acids
69
saturated fat
bad for you; animals and some plants have it; solidifies at room temperature
70
unsaturated fat
better for you, plants have it; liquifies at room temperature
71
steroids
lipids whose structures resemble chicken-wire fence; include cholesterol and sex hormones
72
phospholipids
glycerol + 2 fatty acids + 1 phosphate group; make up membrane bilayers of cells; have hydrophobic interiors and hydrophilic exteriors
73
carbohydrates
used by cells for energy and structure; monosaccharides (glucose), disaccharides (sucrose, maltose, lactose), storage polysaccharides (starch [plants], glycogen [animals]), structural polysaccharides (chitin [fungi], cellulose [arthropods])
74
proteins
made with the help of ribosomes out of amino acids; serve many functions (e.g., transport, enzymes, cell signals, receptor molecules, structural components, and channels)
75
enzymes
catalytic proteins that react in an induced-fit fashion with substances to speed up the rate of reactions by lowering the activation energy; effectiveness is affected by changes in pH, temperature, and substrate and enzyme concentrations
76
competitive inhibition
inhibitor resembles substrate and binds to active site
77
noncompetitive inhibition
inhibitor binds elsewhere on enzyme; alters active site so that substrate cannot bind
78
pH
logarithmic scale; 7 basic (alkaline); pH 4 is 10 times more acidic than pH 5
79
hydrolysis reaction
breaks down compounds by adding water
80
dehydration reaction
two components brought together, producing H2O
81
endergonic reaction
reaction that requires input of energy
82
exergonic reaction
reaction that gives off energy
83
redox reaction
electron transfer reaction
84
cell wall
protects and shapes the cell; found on prokaryotes and plant cells
85
plasma membrane
regulates what substances enter and leave a cell; found in all cells
86
ribosome
host for protein synthesis; formed in nucleolus; found in all cells
87
smooth ER
lipid synthesis, detoxification, carbohydrate metabolism; no ribosomes on cytoplasmic surface; found in eukaryotic cells
88
rough ER
synthesizes proteins to secrete or send to plasma membrane; contains ribosomes on cytoplasmic surface; found in eukaryotic cells
89
golgi apparatus
modifies lipids, proteins, etc., and sends them to other sites on the cell; found in eukaryotic cells
90
mitochondria
power plant of cell; hosts major energy-producing steps of respiration; found in eukaryotic cells
91
lysosome
contains enzymes that digest organic compounds; serves as cell’s stomach; found in animal cells only
92
nucleus
control center of cell; host for transcription, replication, and DNA; found in eukaryotic cells
93
peroxisome
breakdown of fatty acids, detoxification of alcohol; found in eukaryotic cells
94
chloroplast
sit of photosynthesis in plants; found in plant cells only
95
cytoskeleton
skeleton of cell; consists of microtubules (cell division, cilia, flagella), microfilaments (muscles), and intermediate filaments (reinforcing position of organelles); found in eukaryotic cells
96
vacuole
storage vault of cells; small in animals, large in plant cells, not found in prokaryotic cells
97
centrioles
part of microtubule separation apparatus that assists cell division in animal cells; found in animal cells only
98
fluid mosaic model
plasma membrane is a selectively permeable phospholipid bilayer with proteins of various lengths and sizes interspersed with cholesterol among the phospholipids
99
integral proteins
proteins implanted within lipid bilayer of plasma membrane
100
peripheral proteins
proteins attached to exterior of membrane
101
diffusion
passive movement of substances down their concentration radient (from high to low concentrations)
102
osmosis
passive movement of water from the side of low solute concentration to the side of high solute concentration (hypotonic to hypertonic)
103
facilitated diffusion
assisted transport of particles across membrane (no energy input needed)
104
active transport
movement of substances against concentration gradient (low to high concentrations; requires energy input)
105
endocytosis
phagocytosis of particles into a cell through the use of vesicles
106
exocytosis
process by which particles are ejected from the cell, similar to movement in a trash chute
107
sodium-potassium pump
actively moves potassium into the cell and sodium out of the cell against their respective concentration gradients
108
aerobic respiration
glycolysis > Krebs cycle > oxidative phosphorylization > 36 ATP per glucose molecule
109
anaerobic respiration
(fermentation): glycolysis > regenerate NAD+ > 2 ATP per glucose molecule
110
glycolysis
conversion of 1 glucose molecule into 2 pyruvate, 2 ATP, and 2 NADH; occurs in the cytoplasm, and in both aerobic and anaerobic respiration; must have NAD+ to proceed
111
Krebs cycle
conversion of 1 pyruvate molecule into 4 NADH, 1 FADH2, 1 ATP, H2O, and CO2; occurs twice for each glucose to yield 8 NADH, 2 FADH2, 2 ATP; occurs in mitochondria; total of 4 ATP, 10 NADH, and 2 FADH2 including glycolysis
112
oxidative phsophorylation
production of large amounts of ATP from NADH and FADH2; occurs in mitochondria, requires oxygen; NADH and FADH2 pass their electrons down the electron transport chain to produce ATP; each NADH can produce up to 3 ATP, each FADH2 up to 2 ATP; ½ O2 is the final acceptor in the electron transport chain; movement of electrons down the chain leads to movement of H+ out of matrix; regenerates NAD+ so that glycolysis and Krebs cycle can continue; yields 36 ATP including glycolysis and Krebs cycle (not 38 because 2 ATP were used to start glycolysis)
113
chemiosmosis
coupling of movement of electrons down the ETC with the formation of ATP using the driving force provided by the proton gradient; occurs in both cell respiration and photosynthesis
114
ATP synthase
enzyme responsible for using protons to actually produce ATP from ADP
115
fermentation
process that regenerates NAD+ so glycolysis can begin again; occurs in absence of oxygen; begins with glycolysis (2 ATP, 2 pyruvate, and 2 NADH produced from 1 glucose molecule); because their is no oxygen to accept the electron energy on the chain, there is a shortage of NAD+, which prevents glycolysis from continuing
116
alcohol fermentation
occurs in fungi, yeast, and bacteria; causes conversions of pyruvate to ethanol
117
fermentation (lactic acid)
occurs in human and animal muscle cells; causes conversion of pyruvate to lactate; causes cramping sensation when oxygen runs low in muscles
118
photosynthesis
process by which plants use the energy from light to generate sugar; occurs in chloroplasts, light reactions (thylakoid), Calvin cycle (stroma)
119
autotroph
self-nourishing organism that is also known as a producer (plants)
120
heterotroph
organisms that must consume other organisms to obtain energy; consumers (e.g. humans)
121
transpiration
loss of water via evaporation through the stomata (natural process)
122
photophosphorylation
process by which ATP is mad during light reactions
123
photolysis
process by which water is split into hydrogen ions and oxygen atoms (light reactions)
124
stomata
structure though which CO2 enters a plant, and water vapor and oxygen leave a plant
125
pigment
molecule that absorbs light of a particular wavelength (chlorophyll, carotenoid, phycobilins)
126
(noncyclic) light-dependent reactions
occur in thylakoid membrane of chloroplast; inputs are light and water; light strikes photosystem II (P680); electrons pass along until they reach primary electron acceptor; photolysis occurs; electrons pass down an ETC to P700 (photosystem I), forming ATP by chemiosmosis; electrons of P700 pass down another ETC to produce NADPH; three products of light reactions are NADPH, ATP, O2; oxygen comes from H2O
127
(cyclic) light-dependent reactions
occur in thylakoid membrane; only involves photosystem I; ATP is the only product of these reactions; no NADPH or oxygen are produced; exist because Calvin cycle uses more ATP than NADPH (this is how the difference is made up)
128
light-independent reactions (cyclic)
occurs in stroma of chloroplast; inputs are NADPH, ATP, and CO2 first step is carbon fixation, which is catalyzed by an enzyme named rubisco; series of reactions lead to production of NADP+, ADP, and sugar; more ATP is used than NADPH; carbon of sugar product comes from CO2
129
C4 plants
plants that have adapted their photosynthetic process to more efficiently handle hot and dry conditions
130
C4 photosynthesis
process that first converts CO2 into a 4-carbon molecule in the mesophyll cells, converts that product to malate, and then shuttles it to the bundle sheath cells, where the malate releases CO2 and rubisco picks it up as if all were normal
131
CAM plants
plants that close their stomata during the day, collect CO2 at night, and store the CO2 in the form of acids until it is needed during the day for photosynthesis
132
binary fission
prokaryotic cell division; double the DNA, double the size, then split apart
133
cell cycle
G1 (growth 1) > S (synthesis) > G2 (growth 2) > M (mitosis)
134
interphase
G1 + S + G2 = 90 percent of cell cycle
135
prophase
nucleus, nucleolus disappear; mitotic spindle forms
136
metaphase
sister chromatids line up at middle
137
anaphase
sister chromatids are split apart
138
telophase
nuclei of new cells form
139
prophase I
each chromosome pairs with its homolog; there is crossover
140
metaphase I
chromosome pairs align along middle of cell, ready to split apart
141
anaphase I
homologous chromosomes split apart
142
telophase I
nuclear membrane reforms; daughter cells are now haploid (n)
143
prophase II
nucleus disappears, spindle apparatus forms
144
metaphase II
sister chromatids line up at middle
145
anaphase II
sister chromatids are split apart
146
telophase II
nuclei of new cells reform; chromatin uncoils
147
cytokinesis
physical separation of newly formed daughter cells of cell division
148
growth factors
factors that when present, promote growth, and when absent, impede growth
149
checkpoints
a cell stops growing to make sure it has the nutrients and raw materials to proceed
150
density-dependent inhibitors
cell stops growing when certain density is reached (runs out of food)
151
cyclins and protein kinases
cyclin combines with CDK to form a structure known as MPF that pushes cell into mitosis when enough is present
152
haploid (n)
one copy of each chromosome
153
diploid (2n)
two copies of each chromosome
154
homologous chromosomes
chromosomes that are similar in shape, size, and function
155
spermatogenesis
the process of male gamete formation (four sperm from one cell)
156
oogenesis
the process of female gamete formation (one ovum from each cell)
157
life cycles
sequence of events that make up the reproductive cycle of an organism
158
human life cycle
zygote (2n) > multicellular organism (2n) > gametes (n)
159
fungi life cycle
zygote (2n) > multicellular organism (n) > gametes (n)
160
plant life cycle
zygote (2n) > sporophyte (2n) > spores (n) > gametophyte (n) > gametes (n)
161
sources of genetic variation
crossover, 2n possible gametes that can be formed, random pairing of gametes
162
character
heritable feature, such as flower color
163
monohybrid cross
cross involving one character
164
dihybrid cross
cross involving two different characters
165
law of segregation
the two alleles for a trait separate during gamete formation
166
law of independent assortment
inheritance of one trait does not interfere with inheritance of another trait
167
law of dominance
if two opposite pure-breeding varieties are crossed, all offspring resemble BB parent
168
incomplete dominance
Yy produces an intermediate phenotype between YY and yy
169
codominance
both alleles express themselves fully in Yy individual (MN blood groups)
170
polygenic traits
traits that are affected by more than one gene (skin color)
171
multiple alleles
traits that correspond to more than two alleles (blood type)
172
epistasis
a gene at one locus alters the phenotypic expression of a gene at another locus (coat color in mice)
173
pleiotropy
a single gene has multiple effects on an organism (sickle cell anemia)
174
autosomal chromosome
chromosomes not involved in gender
175
sex-linked traits
passed along the X chromosome; more common in males than females (males have only one X) (e.g. hemophilia [can’t clot blood], Duchenne’s muscular dystrophy [muscle weakness], colorblindness)
176
linked genes
genes that lie along the same chromosome and do not follow the law of independent assortment
177
crossover
a form of genetic recombination that occurs during prophase I of meiosis; the further apart genes are along a chromosome the more often they will cross over
178
linkage map
genetic map put together using crossover frequencies; can determine the relative location of a set of genes according to how often they cross over; two genes cross over in 20 percent of the crosses, they are 20 map units apart, etc.
179
Tay-Sachs
fatal, storage disease, lipid builds up in brain, mental retardation, increased incidence in eastern European Jews
180
cystic fibrosis
increased mucus buildup in lungs; untreated children die at young age; one in 25 Caucasians are carriers
181
sickle cell anemia
caused by error of single amino acid; hemoglobin is less able to carry O2, and sickles when O2 content of blood is low; one in 10 African Americans is a carrier. Heterozygous condition protects against malaria.
182
phenylketonuria
inability to digest phenylalanine, which can cause mental retardation if not avoided in diet
183
autosomal dominant disorders
Huntington disease (nervous system disease) and achondroplasia (dwarfism)
