AP BIO UNIT 1 Flashcards
Evolution
This process drives the diversity and unity of life.
Energetics
Biological systems use energy and molecular building blocks to grow, reproduce, and maintain dynamic homeostasis.
Information Storage & Transmission
Living systems store, retrieve, transmit, and respond to information essential to life processes.
Systems Interactions
Biological systems interact, and these systems and their interactions exhibit complex properties.
Inquiry
Search for information and explanation.
Two Main Steps of Inquiry
- Making Observations
- Forming Hypotheses
Making Observations
Describes natural structures and processes through observation and analysis.
Data
Recorded observations.
Qualitative Data
Observations with senses.
Quantitative Date
Measured using instruments.
Inductive Reasoning
Derive generalizations based on a large number of specific observations. (Specific –> General)
Hypothesis
Predictions that can be tested by recording more observations or experiments. Often heard as “if…then…because” but does not need to be in this format. *NEVER say “the hypothesis is correct,” results can either support or refute the hypothesis.
Hypothesis - “If”
The manipulated variable
Hypothesis - “Then”
The responding variable
Hypothesis - “Because”
Optional explanation
Deductive Reasoning
Specific results are derived from general premises. (General –> Specific)
Null Hypothesis
A hypothesis which the researcher tries to disprove, reject, or nullify. The hypothesis states that there is no difference between the two groups of data, and the experimental observations are due to chance. (Example: H0: There will be no difference in headache relief between individuals)
Alternative Hypothesis
Start with H1, then continue listing (H2, H3, H4, etc.) As many as necessary for the experiment. (Example: H1: Tylenol will allow for relief when consumed by patients with headaches. H2: Tylenol will worsen symptoms when consumed by patients with headaches.)
Scientific Method
Most scientific inquiries do not follow a perfectly structured form. Scientists can be working with the wrong hypothesis and have to redirect research.
Hypothesis vs. Theory vs. Law - Hypothesis
Hypothesis: an explanation to a question. Tested by experiment or continued observation. Can be disproven, but cannot be proven true. *NEVER say “my hypothesis was correct” –> Instead say. “my data supports my hypothesis.”
Hypothesis vs. Theory vs. Law - Theory
Theory: summarizes a group of hypotheses. Broader in scope. New hypotheses can be generated from it. Supported by massive body of evidence. NEVER becomes a law.
Hypothesis vs. Theory vs. Law - Scientific Law
Scientific Law: statement of fact usually as a mathematical formula. Example: Newton’s Law of Gravity. Describes an observation - not “how” or “why.” Generally accepted to be true and universal. Basis for scientific method.
Experiments
Start with an observation and a hypothesis. Use control groups and experimental groups. Well designed experiments should include: independent variable, dependent variable, control group (+ and/or -), constants, # trials (minimum of 3).
Variable
Something that is changed in the experiment
Constant
Something that does not change.All the factors that stay the same in an experiment.
Independent Variable
The ONE factor that is changes by the person doing the experiment.
Dependent Variable
The factor which is measured by the experiment.
Control Groups
Controls are ESSENTIAL elements of an experiment: they help eliminate experimental errors and biases of researchers. Results of the control experiments validate statistical analysis of the experiment. Statistical analysis is necessary to determine whether or not data is significant. Reliability of the. experiment increases. Note: controls are NOT constants. Experiments DO NOT need a positive AND a negative control.
Positive Controls
Group NOT EXPOSED to the experimental treatment/independent variable but is exposed to treatment known to produce the expected effect. Ensures that there is an effect when there should be an effect. *If the expected result is not produced, there may be something wrong with experimental procedure. Scientists use positive controls when they are trying to induce a positive result.
Negative Controls
Groups NOT EXPOSED to ANY treatment or exposed to a treatment that is known to have NO effect. Ensures that there is no effect when there should be no effect. Group where nothing is expected to happen. Can be a way of setting a baseline. Used to ensure that no confounding/outside variable has affected the results (to factor in bias)
Statistics
Scientists typically collect data on a sample of a population. Used to infer what is happening in the general population. The first step in analysis is to graph the data and examine the distribution. Typical data will show a normal distribution, a bell shaped curve.
Measures of Central Tendencies
Descriptive statistics allows for researchers to describe and quantify differences between sets. The center of a distribution can be described by the mean, median, or mode.
Mean
The average of the data set. To solve: sum all the data points in the data set & then divide this number by the total number of data points.
Median
The middle number in a range of data. To solve: arrange the data points in numerical order (middle number is median). If there is an even number of data points, average the middle numbers. The median is useful in data sets that have measurements with “extreme values” or abnormal distribution. *The median is not distorted by extreme large or small measurements.
Mode
The value that appears most in a data set. Only useful when describing distribution of data where the mean and median wouldn’t be appropriate. Not usually used to measure central tendency. Example: binomial distribution.
Variability
The measure of how far a data set deviates from the central tendency. How spread out the data points are. Measured by range & standard deviation.
Range
The difference between the largest and smallest values. A larger range indicates a greater spread of data. Larger range = greater variability. Smaller range = less variability. Often used in conjunction with standard deviation.
Standard Deviation
A measure of how spread out the data is from the mean.
Step 1: Find the mean.
Step 2: Determine the deviation from the mean for each data point and square.
Step 3: Calculate the degrees of freedom (n-1), no is the number of data values.
Step 4: Put it all together to calculate “s.”
Low Standard Deviation
The data is closer to the mean. The independent variable is likely causing changes.
High Standard Deviation
The data is farther from the mean (more spread out). Factors other than the independent variable are likely causing changes.
1 Standard Deviation
1 standard deviation from the mean in either direction on the horizontal axis represents 68% of the data.
2 Standard Deviations
2 standard deviations from the mean in either direction on the horizontal axis represents 95% of the data.
3 Standard Deviations
3 standard deviations from the mean in either direction on the horizontal axis represents 99% of the data.
Standard Error of the Mean
Used to determine the precision of an confidence in the mean value. How well the mean of the sample represents the true mean of the population. Based on standard deviation (variability). The number of data points.
Low Standard Error
Increase in confidence. Commonly given as +/- 1 SEM (99% confidence) or +/- 2 SE (95% confidence).
Analyzing Error Bars
If error bars overlap, the difference is not significant.If they do not overlap, the difference may be significant.
Matter
Anything that takes up space and has mass. (Rocks, metal, oil, gases, organisms)
Element
A substance that cannot be broken down into other substances by chemical reactions. (92 elements occur in nature. Periodic table)
Compound
A substance consisting of two or more different elements combined in a fixed ratio. (H2O, NaCl)
Essential Elements
Of the 92 elements occurring in nature, 20-25% are essential to survive and reproduce. CHOPN makes up 96% of living matter.
Trace Elements
Of the 92 natural elements, these are required by an organism in small quantities.
Atomic Number
Number of protons.
Atomic Mass
Number of protons & neutrons averaged over all isotopes.
Group
All elements in the same vertical column that have the same number of valence electrons.
Period
Elements in the same horizontal row that have the same number of electron shells.
Bohr Model
Shows electron orbiting the nucleus of an atom. Electrons are placed on shells around the nucleus. Each shell is a different energy level and can hold up to a certain number of electrons.
- 1st Shell: 2e-
- 2nd Shell: 8e-
- 3rd Shell: 18e-
Lewis Dot Model
Simplified Bohr diagrams. Does not show energy levels. Only shows electrons in the valence shell. Electrons are placed around the element symbol.
Types of Bonds
Elements want to be stable. Achieve this by forming chemical bonds with other elements.
Octet Rule
Elements will gain, lose, or share electrons to complete their valence shell and become stable.
Chemical Bonds
An attraction between two atoms, resulting from the sharing/transferring of valence electrons.
Electronegativity
The measure of an atom’s ability to attract electrons to itself.
Covalent Bonds
When two or more atoms share electrons (usually between two nonmetals). Form molecules and compounds.
- Single Bond: 1 pair of shared e-
- Double Bond: 2 pairs of shared e-
- Triple Bond: 3 pairs of shared e-
Two types: nonpolar covalent and polar covalent
Nonpolar Covalent Bond
Electrons are shared equally between 2 atoms.
Polar Covalent Bond
Electrons are not shared equally between 2 atoms.
Ionic Bonds
The attraction between oppositely charged atoms (ions). Usually between a metal and nonmetal (metal transfers electrons to nonmetal). Forms ionic compounds & salts. NaCl and LiF. Occurs when there is a transfer of electrons from one atom to another atom forming ions.
Cation
Positively charged ions.
Anion
Negatively charged ions.
Hydrogen Bonds
The partially positive hydrogen atom in one polar covalent molecule will be attracted to an electronegative atom in another polar covalent molecule.
Intermolecular Bond
Bond that forms between molecules. When a hydrogen atom is bonded to an electronegative atom (O, N, & F) the electrons are not being shared equally between atoms. Hydrogen has a partial positive charge & the electronegative atom has a partial negative charge. (Example: hydrogen bonds between water molecules)
Intermolecular Bonds in Water
Water molecules move a lot! Hydrogen bonds form, break, and re-form with great frequency. The hydrogen bonds between water make it more structured than most liquids.
Polarity
Unequal sharing of the electrons make water a polar molecule.
Cohesion
Attraction of molecules for other molecules of the same kind. Hydrogen bonds H2O molecules hold them together and increase cohesive forces. Allows for the transport of water and nutrients against gravity in plants. Responsible for surface tension.
Adhesion
The clinging of one molecule to a different molecule. Due to the polarity H2O. In plants, this allows for water to cling to the cell walls to resist the downward pull of gravity.
Cohesion
H2O molecules stick together
Surface Tension
Property allowing liquid to resist external force
Adhesion
H2O molecules stick to the system wall
Capillary Action
The upward movement of water due to the forces of cohesion, adhesion, & surface tension. Occurs when adhesion is greater that cohesion. Important for transport of water & nutrients in plants. Occurs when adhesion is greater than cohesion.
Temperature Control
High specific heat: H2O resists changes in temperature. How? Hydrogen bonds! Heat must be absorbed to break hydrogen bonds, but heat is released when hydrogen bonds form.
Importance of High Specific Heat
Moderates air temperature. Large bodies of water can absorb heat in the daytime and release heat at night. Stabilizes ocean temperature. Organisms can resist changes in their own internal temperature.
Evaporative Cooling
Water has a high heat of vaporization. The molecules with the highest kinetic energy leave as gas.
Importance of Evaporative Cooling
Moderates Earth’s climate. Stabilizes temperature in lakes & ponds. Prevents terrestrial organisms from overheating (example: sweating in humans). Prevents leaves from becoming too warm in the sun.
Density
(floating ice) As water solidifies, it expands and becomes less dense. Due to the hydrogen bonds, when cooled, H2O molecules move too slowly to break the bonds. This allows marine life to survive under floating ice sheets. Hydrogen bonds cause water molecules to form a crystalline structure.
Solvent
Dissolving agent in a solution. Water is a versatile solvent. Its polar molecules are attracted to ions and other polar molecules it can form hydrogen bonds with.
Solvent
Dissolving agent in a solution
“Like Dissolves Like”
Water can interact with sugars or proteins containing many oxygen and hydrogen. Water will form hydrogen bonds with the sugar or protein to dissolve it.
Solute
Substance that is dissolved
Solution
Homogenous Mix of 2+ Substances
Carbon
Organic molecules contain carbon-hydrogen bonds. all living things are made of organic compounds. Carbon can form up to 4 bonds with other atoms.
Ionic Compounds
The partially negative oxygen in water will interact with a positive atom. The partially positive hydrogen in water will interact with a negative atom. Na+ surrounded by oxygen and Cl- surrounded by hydrogen.
“SPONCH”
Sulfur, Phosphorous, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Carbon, Hydrogen. These 6 elements may combine to form an organic compound, HOWEVER, organic compounds must always contain carbon and hydrogen.
Organic Compounds Found in Living Things
Carbohydrates, Lipids, Nucleic Acids, Proteins
Monomers & Polymers
Mono - One
Poly - Many
Monomers are single units of a larger structure. Polymers are larger structures made up of monomers.
Carbohydrates
A carbohydrate is a type of organic molecules that contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio. C6H12O9. Sugars with the ending -ose. (Examples: glucose, sucrose, fructose, maltose, lactose, ribose, dextrose)
Carbohydrate Monomers and Polymers
Monomer of carbohydrates = monosaccharide
Polymer of carbohydrates = polysaccharide
A pair of monosaccharides is called a disaccharide.
Functions of Carbohydrates (Energy)
Sugars contain high energy bonds that provide energy for our bodies when consumed. The largest of these sugars are the polysaccharides, such as starch, which is present in plants such as rice, potatoes, corn, etc.
Functions of Carbohydrates (Cell Structure)
Cellulose is a type of polysaccharide found within the cell walls of plants, which maintains the cell’s shape and structure. Cellulose is a type of fiber.
Functions of Carbohydrates (Cell Structure)
Chitin is a polysaccharide found in the cell walls of fungi, and also in the exoskeleton of insects/arthropods.
Lipids
Lipids are an organic compound that is made up of. Chains of hydrocarbons called fatty acids. Fatty acids can be saturated or unsaturated.
Saturated vs. Unsaturated Fats
Saturated: no double bonds, solid at room temperature
Unsaturated: contains no double bonds, liquid at room temperature
Lipids are Hydrophobic
Lipids are hydrophobic because they are insoluble in water.
Lipids as Fats
Fats are used primarily for energy storage. Fat is found in both animals and plants, though plants do not store fat in adipose tissue like animals do.
Plants Use Fat for Storage
Example: cocoa butter coats the seed of the cocoa. Fat molecules have 3 fatty acid chains.
Examples of Lipids - Waxes
Waterfowl have wax coats on their feather to help them keep dry. Plants have wax on their leaves that help them retain water.
Lipids - Steroids
Examples of steroids include cholesterol, vitamins, and some hormones.
Anabolic Steroids
Steroids that are taken to enhance athletic performance. (Synthetic) They have 0 fatty acid chains.
Lipids - Phospholipids
Phospholipids are found in the cell membrane. They have 2 fatty acid chains. The fatty acid chain “tails” are found on the inner portion of the cell membrane because they are hydrophobic and face away from the water.
Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids are organic compounds that play a vital role in our cells by storing genetic information or energy. The monomer of nucleic acids are nucleotides.
Nucleic Acids - ATP
ATPis a compounds that stores energy for our cells. ATP has 3 phosphates while DNA only has one.
Nucleotides - DNA & RNA
The nucleotide has 3 parts: a phosphate, sugar, and nitrogen base. Possible nitrogen bases include adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. DNA can differ because there are 4 different nitrogen bases that can form different nucleotides in different sequences.
Protein Functions
Proteins have many roles and functions and come in many different forms.
Motion and Transport: proteins make up our muscles and cartilage
Cell Transport: the cell membrane contains proteins which act as doors to let things in/out of the cell.
Defense: antibodies are made up of proteins, which help prevent infection
Enzymes: speed up chemical reactions or assist in creating new molecules
Messenger: transmit signals (example: hormones)
Amino Acids
The monomers of proteins are called amino acids. There are 20 different amino acids which can create thousand of different proteins depending on how they are arranged. Polymers are linked amino acids known as peptides or polypeptides which form a protein.
Protein Structure
Protein structures is complex and set up in 4 different possible dimensions.
1. Primary Structure: the amino acids that make up the protein
2. Secondary Structure: the characteristics of the protein and how it bonds and how it folds/bends
3. Tertiary Structure: the general 3D structure of the protein.
4. Quaternary Structure: multiple peptide chains entangled into one functioning unit.
Enzymes
Enzymes are their own class of proteins. Without enzymes, chemical reactions would occur too slowly to survive.
Enzymes that break down sugars: carbohydrases
Enzymes that break down proteins: proteases
Enzymes that break down lipids: lipases
Enzymes that join molecules together: polymerases
Enzymes that transfer parts of molecules: transferases
Enzymes & Substrates
Substrate: a molecule that an enzyme acts upon.
Example: amylase and starch
Enzyme: amylase
Substrate: glucose
Amylase breaks down starch into individual glucose molecules.
Enzymes - Lock and Key
If you eat a cheeseburger for lunch, amylase will only react with the starch found in the bun. Why? It will not break down the other types of food molecules (one substrate per enzyme). The active site of the enzyme is the specific area of the enzyme where it bond to the substrate.
Organic Chemistry
The study of compounds with covalently bonded carbon
Organic Compounds
Compounds that contain carbon & hydrogen
Carbon Bonds
Carbon can form single, double, or triple covalent bonds. A single carbon can form up to 4 covalent bonds. It can form long chains. It is most commonly formed with hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. The type and number of covalent bonds carbon forms with other atoms affects the length of the carbon chain and shape of the molecule.
Carbon Chains
Carbon can use its valence electrons to form covalent bonds to other carbons. This links the carbons into a chain.
Hydrocarbons
Organic molecules consisting only of carbon and hydrogen (simple framework for more complex organic molecules)
Skeletons of Organic Molecules
Carbon chains form the skeletons of most organic molecules. Skeletons can vary in length, branching, double bond position, and presence of rings. Many regions of a cell’s organic molecules contain hydrocarbons.
Functional Groups
Chemical groups attached to the carbon skeleton that participate in chemical reactions.
Hydroxyl Group
-OH (Ethanol)
Carbonyl Group
-C=O (Acetone)
Carboxyl Group
-COOH (Acetic Acid)
Amino Group
-NH2 (Methylamine)
Sulfhydryl Group
-SH (Cysteine)
Methyl Group
-HCHH (Methyl Formate)
Phosphate Group
-OPO2/3 (Glycerol Phosphate)
Molecular Diversity Due to Carbon
Variations in carbon skeletons allows for molecular diversity. Carbon can form large molecules known as macromolecules.
Four Classes of Macromolecules
Carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids. All are polymers. *This list does not include true polymers and are hydrophobic molecules. *Along with carbon, nitrogen is an important element for building proteins and nucleic acids. Phosphorous is important for building nucleic acids and some lipids.
Polymers
Chain-like macromolecules of similar or identical repeating units that are covalently bonded together
Monomers
The repeating units that make up polymers
Dehydration Reaction
Bonds two monomers with the loss of H2O. The -OH of one monomer bonds to the -H of the other monomer forming H2O which is then released.
- A+B –> AB + H2O
Hydrolysis
Breaks the bonds in a polymer by adding H2O.One -H of the H2O bonds to one monomer and the remaining -OH of the H2O attaches to the other monomer.
- AB + H2O –> A+B
Carbohydrates
Includes sugars and polymers of sugars. Contains a carbonyl group and many hydroxyl groups. (Comprised of C,H, & O).
Monosaccharides
Simple sugars. Molecular formulas with multiples of the CH2O. Most common is glucose. Nutrients and fuel for cells. Used in cellular respiration. Can serve as building blocks for amino acids, or as monomers for di- & polysaccharides.
Disaccharides
Two monosaccharides joined together by covalent bonds. Most common is sucrose. Monomers of sucrose: glucose and fructose. Plants transfer carbohydrates from roots to leaves in the form of sucrose.
Polysaccharides
Polymer with many sugars joined via dehydration reactions.
Storage Polysaccharides
Plants store starch (polymer of glucose monomer). Allows plants to store excess glucose. Animals store glycogen (polymer of glucose) which is stored in liver and muscle cells.
Structural Polysaccharides
Cellulose: tough substance that forms plant cell walls.
Chitin: forms exoskeleton of arthropods.
Starch Structure
Branched with monomers oriented in the same way. Starch is loosely bonded so that it can store glucose easily and break apart easily for usage.
Cellulose Structure
Chain-like with every other monomer flipped. It is super strong. It is tightly bonded so that is strong and difficult to break down, effective for cell walls.
Protein
Molecule consisting of polypeptides (polymers of amino acids) folded into a 3D shape. (Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulfure (CHONS)) Shape determines function.
Amino Acids
Molecules that have an amino group & carboxyl group. There are 20 different amino acids. The general structure is an amino group joined with a carboxyl group joined with an “R” group which is a variable side chain.
Examples of Amino Acids
Alanine & Glycine. Both have unique side chains (CH3 in alanine and H in glycine)
Each Amino Acid Has a Unique Side Chain
Unique aspect of the amino acids are based on the side chain’s physical and chemical properties. Side chains can be grouped as nonpolar (hydrophobic), polar (hydrophilic), or charged/ionic (hydrophilic). Side chains interact, which determine the shape and function of the protein.
Formation of Peptide Bonds
To form a peptide bond, the carboxyl group of one amino acid must be positioned next to the amino group of another amino acid.
Building a Protein
Amino Acid –> Peptide –> Polypeptide –> Protein
Polypeptides
Polypeptides are many amino acids linked by peptide bonds. Each polypeptide has a unique sequence of amino acids and directionality. Each end is chemically unique. One end is a free amino group (N-terminus) and another end is a free carboxyl group (C-terminus). The sequence of amino acids determines the 3D shape which determines the function of the protein. When a polypeptide twists and folds (because of r-group interaction), it forms a protein.
Levels of Protein Structure
Primary: linear chain of amino acids. Determined via genes. Dictates secondary and tertiary forms.
Secondary: coils and folds due to hydrogen bonding within the polypeptide backbone.
Tertiary: 3D folding due to interactions between the side chains of the amino acids. Reinforced by hydrophobic interactions and disulfide bridges of the side chains. The covalent bonds formed between sulfur atoms of 2 cysteine monomers.
Quaternary: Association of two or more polypeptides. Found in some proteins.
β Pleated Sheet
Hydrogen bonds between polypeptide chains lying side by side. (Found in the secondary and tertiary structure of a protein)
α Helix
Hydrogen bonding between every 4th amino acid. (Found in the secondary and tertiary structure of a protein)
Nucleic Acids
Polymers made of nucleotide monomers. They store, transmit, and express hereditary information. they are found in two forms: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA)
Building Nucleic Acids
Nucleotides –> Polynucleotides –> Nucleic Acids
Forming a Nucleic Acid
In every nucleic acid there is a nitrogenous base, five-carbon sugar (pentose), and a phosphate group. (In polynucleotides, each monomer only has one phosphate group). CHOPN makes up nucleic acids.
Pyrimidines (Nitrogenous Base)
One ring with 6 atoms. (Cytosine, Thymine (Only in DNA), and Uracil (Only in RNA))
Purines (Nitrogenous Base)
One ring with 6 atoms bonded to one ring with 5 atoms. (Adenine and Guanine)
Five Carbon Sugar (Nucleic Acids)
A sugar is bonded to the base. In DNA, the sugar is deoxyribose. In RNA, the sugar is ribose. The two sugars differ in structure and function.
Phosphate Group (Nucleic Acids)
A phosphate group is added to the 5’ carbon of the sugar (which is attached to the base) to form a nucleotide.
Nucleoside
The portion of a nucleic acid without the phosphate group
Polynucleotides
Phosphate groups link adjacent nucleotides. They use phosphodiester linkages. A dehydration reaction occurs to bond nucleotides. There is directionality with a 5’ and 3’ end. The 5’ end is the phosphate end while the 3’ end is the hydroxyl end. The sequence of bases along the DNA or mRNA is unique for each gene. It dictates the amino acid sequence which dictates the primary structure of a protein and in turn, dictates the 3D structure of a protein.
DNA
Consists of two polynucleotides. Forms a double helix. Strands are antiparallel and held together by hydrogen bonds between bases. Cytosine binds to guanine and adenine binds to thymine. The 5’ and 3’ ends are oppositely oriented to form the antiparallel structure.
RNA
Single stranded polynucleotide. Variable in shape due to base pairing within RNA. Adenine bonds to uracil and cytosine bonds to guanine.
Lipids
Class of molecules that do not include true polymers. Generally small in size and often not considered to be a macromolecule. Lipids are nonpolar (hydrophobic)
Types of Lipids
Fats, Phospholipids, Steroids
Fats
Fats are composed of glycerol and fatty acids. Glycerol: classified as an alcohol (hydroxyl groups). Fatty acids: long carbon chains (carboxyl groups) @ one end. 3fatty acids join to a glycerol via ester linkage (bonding between a hydroxyl and carboxyl group)
Saturated Fatty Acid
No double chain bonds between carbons in the carbon chain = more hydrogen (“saturated with hydrogen”) (straight)
Unsaturated Fatty Acid
Contains one or more double bonds (kinked)
Phospholipids
Major component of cell membranes. Two fatty acids attached to a glycerol and phosphate. Assemble as a bilayer in H2O, tails are hydrophobic and heads are hydrophilic.
Steroids
Lipids that have 4 fused rings. Unique groups attached to the ring to determine the type of steroid. (Example: testosterone)
Macromolecule Review - Carbohydrates
Elements Involved: Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen
Monomer: Monosaccharide
Polymer: Polysaccharide
Macromolecule Review - Protein
Elements Involved: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulfur
Monomer: Amino Acids
Polymer: Polypeptides
Macromolecule Review - Lipids
Elements Involved: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorous for Phospholipids
Monomer: Glycerol & Fatty Acids
Polymer: Does Not Contain True Polymers
Macromolecule Review - Nucleic Acids
Elements Involved: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorous, and Nitrogen
Monomer: Nucleotides
Polymer: DNA, RNA
