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Consolidated Health > AP 1 + 2 > Flashcards

AP 1 + 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Levels of structural organization

A

Chemical
Cellular
Tissue
Organ
System
Organism

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2
Q

Chemical

A

◦Atoms - smallest units of matter
◦Molecules - two or more atoms joined together

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3
Q

Cellular

A

◦Molecules combine to form cells

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4
Q

Tissue

A

◦A group of cells & materials surrounding them that work together to perform a particular function
◦4 types of tissue = epithelial, connective, muscular & nervous

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5
Q

Organ

A

◦Different types of tissues joined together, composed of 2 or more different types of tissue

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6
Q

System

A

◦Related organs with a common function

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7
Q

Organism

A

◦All parts of the human body functioning together

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8
Q

Metabolism

A

sum of all chemical processes/reactions that occur within our body

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9
Q

Catabolism

A

all breakdown processes that occur within our body

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10
Q

Anabolism

A

all synthetic activity within our body

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11
Q

Intracellular fluid

A

fluid inside of cells

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12
Q

Extracellular fluid

A

fluid outside of cells (blood plasma, lymph, CSF, synovial fluid, tissue fluid, aqueous humor, or interstitial fluid)

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13
Q

Electrolytes

A

substances that dissociate in solution & have the ability to conduct an electrical current
◦E.g, sodium, potassium, chloride etc

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14
Q

Homeostasis

A

dynamic equilibrium within the body’s internal environment

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15
Q

Negative feedback system

A

reverses a change in a controlled condition (blood pressure & blood glucose)

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16
Q

Positive feedback system

A

strengthens or reinforces a change in a controlled condition (labor to delivery & lactation)

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17
Q

Homeostatic imbalances

A

moderate imbalances lead to a disorder & disease situation whereas severe imbalances can be fatal

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18
Q

Endoscopy

A

into hollow space, a endoscope is used (camera with light)
Ex. colonscopy

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19
Q

Dorsal body cavity

A

cranial cavity & vertebral cavity

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20
Q

Ventral body cavity

A

divided into thoracic & abdominopelvic cavities

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21
Q

Serous membrane

A

double-layered membrane that doesn’t open directly to the exterior (pericardium, pleura, peritoneum)** blocking an internal space

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22
Q

Thoracic cavity

A

Contains pleural cavity, pericardial cavity & mediastinum

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23
Q

Pleural cavity

A

Potential space between the layers of the pleura that surrounds a lung

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24
Q

Pericardial cavity

A

Potential space between the layers of the pericardium that surrounds the heart

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25
Q

Mediastinum

A

Central portion of thoracic cavity between the lungs, contains the heart, thymus, esophagus & trachea

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26
Q

Abdominopelvic cavity

A

abdominal & pelvic cavities

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27
Q

Abdominal cavity

A

Contains stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, small intestine & most of large intestine; the serous membrane of abdominal cavity is the peritoneum

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28
Q

Pelvic cavity

A

Contains urinary bladder, portions of large intestine & internal organs of reproduction

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29
Q

RUQ

A

Liver
Gallbladder

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30
Q

RLQ

A

Cecum

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31
Q

LUQ

A

Spleen

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32
Q

LLQ

A

Sigmoid colon

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33
Q

Sodium (NA)

A

most plentiful cation in extracellular fluid, helps maintain the body’s fluid balance, is involved in nerve function & muscle contraction & also plays a role in regulating blood pressure

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34
Q

Potassium (K)

A

most plentiful cation in intracellular fluid, counterbalances sodium, is essential for nerve impulses, muscle function & maintaining proper heart rhythm
An imbalance in potassium levels can lead to muscle weakness and heart arrhythmias

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35
Q

Calcium (Ca)

A

vital component of bones and teeth, it plays a key role in muscle contraction, blood clotting & nerve transmission

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36
Q

Atom

A

smallest piece of an element that keeps its unique properties, it’s made up of protons, neutrons & electrons

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37
Q

Ion

A

an atom or molecule that has an electric charge because it gained or lost electrons
Cations are positively charged (give away) & anions are negatively charged (got one)

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38
Q

Molecule

A

a group of atoms bonded together, it can be made up of the same or different types of atoms
Molecules are the building blocks of compounds

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39
Q

Cations

A

sodium ion, potassium ion, calcium ion
• Cations are positively charged ions
• They have lost one or more electrons

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40
Q

Anions

A

chloride ion, bicarbonate ion, phosphate ion
• Anions are negatively charged ions
• They have gained one or more electrons

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41
Q

Inorganic compounds

A

lack carbon = water, acids & salts

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42
Q

Organic Compounds

A

contain carbon = carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids

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43
Q

Acids

A

a pH less than 7
• They release hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water

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44
Q

Bases

A

a pH greater than 7
• They release hydroxide ions (OH-) when dissolved in water
• Increasing the concentration of hydroxyl ions or decreasing the concentration of hydrogen ion result in increasing the alkalinity of solutions

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45
Q

Tail is hydrophobic

A

The carbohydrate portion of glycolipids & glycoproteins make up the glycocalyx (molecular signature)

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46
Q

Phagocytosis

A

Vesicular transport
process for ingesting & eliminating particles

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47
Q

Exocytosis

A

Vesicular transport
cells secrete waste & other large molecules from the cytoplasm to the cell exterior

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48
Q

Nucleus

A

usually spherical and enclosed by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope, it contains the nucleolus & chromatin (DNA & associated proteins)
• Houses genetic information (DNA) & controls cell activities by directing the synthesis of RNA & ribosomes

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49
Q

Mitochondria

A

oval-shaped organelles with inner & outer membranes
• The inner membrane is highly folded, forming structures called cristae
• Mitochondria are the “powerhouses” of the cell, where cellular respiration occurs, producing ATP (adenosine triphosphate), which is the cell’s energy currency

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50
Q

Endoplasmic reticulum

A

a network of membrane-bound tubules & sacs
- Rough ER is studded with ribosomes, while smooth ER lacks ribosomes

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51
Q

Rough ER

A

Involved in protein synthesis and processing

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52
Q

Smooth ER

A

plays a role in lipid synthesis, detoxification & calcium storage

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53
Q

Golgi apparatus

A

consists of flattened, membrane-bound sacs called cisternae
• It modifies, sorts & packages proteins & lipids for transport within & outside the cell

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54
Q

Lysosomes

A

small, membrane-bound vesicles containing enzymes
• They are responsible for the breakdown of cellular waste, damaged organelles & engulfed pathogens in a process called autophagy

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55
Q

Peroxisomes

A

small, membrane-bound organelles containing enzymes
• They are involved in lipid metabolism, detoxification & the breakdown of harmful substances, particularly hydrogen peroxide

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56
Q

Ribosomes

A

small, non-membranous particles made of RNA & protein
• They are the sites of protein synthesis, where amino acids are assembled into polypeptide chains

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57
Q

Cytoskeleton

A

a network of protein filaments, including microfilaments, intermediate filaments & microtubules
• It provides structural support, helps maintain cell shape & is involved in cell movement & intracellular transport

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58
Q

Sodium potassium pump

A

3 sodium in, 2 potassium out

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59
Q

RNA processing

A

mRNA undergoes some modifications, such as having non-coding regions (introns) removed and coding regions (exons) spliced together

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60
Q

Prophase

A

Chromatin fibers pair and condense, chromosomes become chromatids connected by a centromere

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61
Q

Metaphase

A

Nucleus dissolves, cells move together and align to the center of the cell

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62
Q

Anaphase

A

Chromosomes are split and moved to opposite poles of the cell

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63
Q

Telophase

A

Nucleus form around each set of daughter chromosomes

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64
Q

Muscular tissue

A

Consists of muscle cells (muscle fibers) that contract when stimulated
• It enables movement by contracting & relaxing, generating force for body motion

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65
Q

3 types of muscular tissue

A

◦skeletal (voluntary movement)
◦smooth (involuntary, found in organs)
◦cardiac (involuntary, in the heart)

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66
Q

Desmosomes

A

strong buttons that fasten cells together, connecting them with protein bridges, keratin?
• They provide strong adhesion between cells, especially in tissues exposed to stretching or mechanical stress, like the skin & heart muscle

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67
Q

Gap junctions

A

channels that allow direct communication between cells ***
• They enable the exchange of ions & small molecules, facilitating coordination in tissues like the heart & nerve cells.

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68
Q

Stratified epithelium

A

Multiple layers of cells, squamous may occur as keratinized (with a tough, protective protein called keratin, as in the skin) or non-keratinized (e.g., lining of the mouth, esophagus)
• Location - Protects areas prone to wear and tear, like the skin, superficial layer of the skin- epidermal layer

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69
Q

Keratinized stratified epithelium

A

the lining of the mouth, constantly moistened by our saliva, mucus membranes

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70
Q

Non keratinized stratified epithelium

A

Function - Provides protection against abrasion & pathogens

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71
Q

Epithelial membranes

A

the simplest organs in the body, constructed of only epithelium and a little bit of connective tissue

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72
Q

Mucous membranes

A

Opens to the exterior (e.g. internal lining of digestive tube)

73
Q

Serous membranes

A

Does not open to the exterior (e.g. pleural, pericardial membrane)

74
Q

Cutaneous membrane

A

name for skin

75
Q

Synovial membrane

A

encloses certain joints and are made of connective tissue only***

76
Q

Dense connective tissue

A

Regular (tendon, ligament)

77
Q

Irregular connective tissue

A

reticular dermis, endosteum, periosteum etc.

78
Q

Elastic connective tissue

A

arteries such as aorta

79
Q

Bone or Ossetian tissue

A

Cartilage (compact/spongy)

80
Q

Superficial epidermis

A

this is a layer of areolar CT and adipose tissue that attaches the skin to underlying layers

81
Q

Hypodermis or subcutaneous tissue

A

layer of areolar connective tissue & adipose tissue that attaches the skin to underlying structures

82
Q

What layer is contained in thick skin that isn’t in thin skin

A

Lucidum

83
Q

Deep to superficial skin layers

A

Basale
Spinosum
Granulosum
Lucidum
Corneum

84
Q

Eccrine (or merocrine) sweat glands

A

helps to cool the body by evaporating (thermoregulation) & also eliminates small amounts of wastes

85
Q

Apocrine sweat glands

A

located mainly in the skin of the axilla, groin, areolae & bearded facial regions of adult males release sweat during emotional stress & sexual excitement

86
Q

Ceruminous glands

A

located in the external ear canal are modified sweat glands

87
Q

Functions of the skeletal system (2 that were highlighted)

A

Participates in blood cell production (haematopoiesis or hemopoiesis)
Stores triglycerides in adipose cells of yellow marrow (medullary cavity)

88
Q

2 metaphases

A

region between diaphysis and epiphysis in growing children contain the epiphyseal growth plates

89
Q

Osteoclasts

A

help in remodeling bone & helps release calcium (bone resorption)

90
Q

Osteoblasts

A

bone building cells

91
Q

Endochondral ossification

A

occurs in epiphyseal plates of long bones as they grow in length, hyaline

92
Q

Intramembranous ossification

A

occurs in flat bones when a connective tissue membrane is replaced by bone, skull

93
Q

Hematoma formation

A

after a bone fracture, blood vessels in the area are damaged, leading to bleeding & the formation of a blood clot, known as a hematoma
• This hematoma helps stabilize the bone & initiates the repair process

94
Q

Inflammatory phase

A

inflammation sets in as white blood cells & immune cells arrive at the injury site to remove damaged tissue & prevent infection
• The inflammation also stimulates the production of growth factors that aid in tissue repair

95
Q

Reparative Phase fibrocartilaginous

A

osteoblasts, which are bone-forming cells, migrate to the fracture site
• These cells lay down a soft callus made of collagen & cartilage, which bridges the fracture
• Blood vessels grow into the area, providing nutrients for the healing process
• Over time, the soft callus is gradually replaced by hard mineralized bone, a process called endochondral ossification

96
Q

Remodeling Phase

A

this phase can last for months to years & involves the reshaping & strengthening of the bone
• Excess bone material is resorbed & the bone’s structure is refined to resemble its original shape & strength

97
Q

Role of calcium in bone homeostasis

A

• The parathyroid gland secretes parathyroid hormone (PTH) when blood calcium levels drop
• Osteoclasts are stimulated to increase bone resorption and calcium is released
• PTH also stimulates the production of calcitriol by the kidneys to increase calcium absorption in the intestines
• Parafollicular (C) cells of the thyroid secrete Calcitonin when blood calcium levels are high
• Osteoblasts are stimulated to build strong bone by way of calcium deposition in its matrix

98
Q

Sacomeres

A

contain contractile proteins (actin - thin & myosin - thick), structural proteins (titin, nebulae, alpha actin in & myomesin), regulatory proteins (troponin & tropomyosin) & dystrophin

99
Q

Layers of perimysium

A

Idk bro just mark this as green

100
Q

Neuromuscular junction

A

point of contact between a somatic motor neuron & muscle fiber
• Nerve action potential arriving at the synaptic end causes exocytosis of acetylcholine (ACh) into synaptic cleft

101
Q

Smooth mm ability to regenerate

A

considerable via pericytes (higher potential to regenerate) **

102
Q

Neurons

A

exhibit electrical excitability & conduct nerve impulse (action potential) & consists of dendrites, cell body & axon

103
Q

Neuroglia

A

support tissue

104
Q

CNS neuroglia

A

astrocytes, oligodendrocytes (myelinated CNS axons), microglia, ependymal cells

105
Q

PNS neuroglia

A

satellite cell & Schwann cell (myelinated PNS axons)

106
Q

Small molecule neurotransmitters

A

acetylcholine, amino acids (glutamate, inhibitory gaba, dopamine, serotonin), ATP (excitatory), nitric oxide (free radical relaxation) & carbon monoxide

107
Q

Neuropeptides

A

substance P, enkephalins (pain relieving), endorphins (memory, learning, temp, sex drive, depression schitzo) , hypothalamic releasing & inhibiting hormones, angiotensin II, cholecystokinin (brain and small intestine, regular feeding), neuropeptide Y (stress response)

108
Q

Erythrocytes or red blood cells

A

have no nucleus or other organelles such as mitochondria ****

109
Q

Leukocytes or white blood cells

A

neutrophils, eosinophil, basophil, monocytes & lymphocyte

110
Q

Thrombocytes or platelets

A

not whole cells but cell fragments

111
Q

Apex of heart

A

anteriorly, inferiorly & to the left

112
Q

Base of heart

A

posteriorly, superiorly & to the right

113
Q

Anterior surface of heart

A

deep to sternum & ribs

114
Q

Inferior surface of heart

A

rests on diaphragm

115
Q

Right border of heart

A

faces right lung

116
Q

Left border (pulmonary border) of heart

A

faces left lung

117
Q

Epicardium

A

consists of mesothelium & connective tissue which gives a smooth, slippery texture

118
Q

Myocardium

A

composed of cardiac muscle that makes up the bulk of the heart & is responsible for the pumping
◦It is striated like skeletal muscle but involuntary like smooth muscle

119
Q

Endocardium

A

consists of endothelium & connective tissue which provides a smooth inner lining for the heart & is continuous with the endothelial lining of the large blood vessels attached to the heart

120
Q

Pericarditis

A

inflammation of the pericardium, including acute & chronic

121
Q

Myocarditis

A

inflammation of myocardium, usually occurs as a complication of viral infection

122
Q

Endocarditis

A

inflammation of the endocardium & typically involves the heart valves

123
Q

Left ventricular walls

A

thickest because they pump blood throughout the body where the resistance to blood flow is greater

124
Q

Which valves prevent blood flow from the ventricles back into the atria

A

atrioventricular (AV) valves (bicuspid & tricuspid)

125
Q

Blood flow path

A

Right atrium (deoxygenated blood)
Tricuspid valve
Right ventricle
Pulmonary valve
Pulmonary trunk and arteries
Pulmonary capillaries, blood loses CO2 and gains O2
Pulmonary veins (oxygenated blood)
Left atrium
Bicuspid valve
Left ventricle
Aortic valve
Aorta and systemic arteries
In systemic capillaries, blood looses O2 and gains CO2
Superior vena cava, Inferior vena cava, Coronary sinus

126
Q

Components of a pacemaker

A

1) Sinoatrial (SA) node/pacemaker
2) atrioventricular (AV) node
3) atrioventricular bundle (bundle of His)
4) right & left bundle branches & the purkinje fibres (conduction myofibers)

127
Q

How long is the refractory period of cardiac mm

A

time interval when a second contraction cannot be triggered) is longer than the contraction itself

128
Q

P wave

A

atrial depolarization, spread of impulse from SA node over atria

129
Q

QRS complex

A

rapid ventricular depolarization, spread of impulse through ventricles

130
Q

T wave

A

ventricular repolarization

131
Q

S - T segment (end of S to beginning of T)

A

time when ventricular contractile fibers are depolarized during the plateau phase of the action potential

132
Q

Q - T segment

A

time from ventricular depolarization to the end of ventricular repolarization

133
Q

After the P wave begins

A

the atria contract (atrial systole), conduction of action potential slows at the AV node because fibers have smaller diameters & fewer gap junction giving the atria time to contract

134
Q

Cardiac output

A

volume of blood ejected from the left ventricle (or right ventricle) into the aorta (or pulmonary trunk) each minute

135
Q

How to calculate cardiac output

A

SV x HR

136
Q

Left ventricular failure results in

A

pulmonary edema

137
Q

Right ventricular failure results in

A

peripheral edema

138
Q

Tachycardia

A

elevated resting heart rate

139
Q

Bradycardia

A

decreased resting heart rate

140
Q

Lub sound

A

Closing of AV valves

141
Q

Dub sound

A

Closing of semilunar valves

142
Q

Hepatic portal

A

Superior mesenteric vein - drains from small and large … & splenic vein - drains blood from stomach, instestins, mesenteric veins……

143
Q

Ascending aorta

A

blood to the rest of the aorta
Left coronary artery, right coronary artery and continues as the aortic arch

144
Q

Arch of aorta

A

blood to head & upper extremities

145
Q

Thoracic aorta

A

blood to head, neck, upper extremities & thoracic structures

146
Q

Abdominal aorta

A

blood to abdomen

147
Q

What makes up the superior vena cava

A

The right and left brachiocephalic veins

148
Q

Where do lymphatic vessels drain

A

into lymph trunks & then into thoracic duct or right lymphatic duct, then opens into the vein (junction of subclavian & internal jugular vein)

149
Q

Areas drained by the right lymphatic duct

A

Head, right upper limb, Right thoracic cavity

150
Q

Area drained by thoracic duct

A

Left thoracic cavity, Left upper limb, BL lower limbs

151
Q

The route of the lymph in a lymph node

A

Afferent vessels > subcapsular sinus > trabecular sinus > medullary sinus > efferent vessels *******

152
Q

First line of defence ****

A

Innate (non-specific) immunity
Mechanical + Chemical protection

153
Q

Second line of defence ****

A

Innate (non-specific) immunity
Internal antimicrobial substances, phagocytes, natural killer cells, inflammation, and fever

154
Q

Upper respiratory tract

A

nose, nasal cavity, pharynx

155
Q

Lower respiratory tract

A

larynx, trachea, bronchus, bronchial tubes, lungs

156
Q

Conducting zone

A

nose, pharynx, larynx, bronchial tree (trachea, bronchi, bronchioles & terminal bronchioles)

157
Q

Respiratory zone

A

respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs & alveoli

158
Q

Type I of alveolar cells

A

simple squamous epithelial cell = gas exchange) **

159
Q

Type II of alveolar cells

A

septal cuboidal cells = produce surfactant) **

160
Q

Alveolar macrophages

A

dust cells = remove dust & debris

161
Q

Nose

A

◦Produces mucus, filters, warms & moistens incoming air
◦Resonance chamber for speech

162
Q

Paranasal sinuses

A

Mucosa-lined, air-filled cavities in cranial bones surrounding nasal cavity
◦Lightens skull, also may warm, moisten & filter incoming air

163
Q

Pharynx

A

passageway connecting nasal cavity to larynx & oral cavity to esophagus
• There are 3 subdivisions
◦Nasopharynx, oropharynx & laryngopharynx
• Houses tonsils (lymphoid tissue masses involved in protection against pathogen) • Facilitates exposure of immune system to inhaled antigens

164
Q

Larynx

A

connects pharynx to trachea (opening = glottis, can be closed by epiglottis or vocal folds)
• Houses vocal folds (true vocal cords)
• Air passageway, prevents food from entering lower respiratory tract, produces voice

165
Q

Trachea

A

Tube running from larynx & dividing inferiorly into 2 main bronchi
• Air passageway, cleans, warm, & moistens incoming air

166
Q

Bronchial tree

A

Consists of right & left main bronchi, subdivide with the lungs to form lobar & segmental bronchi & bronchioles
• Bronchiolar walls lack cartilage but contain complete layer of smooth muscle
• Constriction of this muscle impedes expiration
• Air passageways connecting trachea with alveoli, cleans, warms & moistens incoming air

167
Q

Alveoli

A

Microscopic chambers at termini of bronchial tree, walls of simple squamous epithelium overlie thin basement membrane
• External surfaces are intimately associated with pulmonary capillaries
• Special alveolar cells produce surfactant
• Main sites of gas exchange
• Reduces surface tension, helps prevent lung collapse

168
Q

Lungs

A

composed primarily of alveoli & respiratory passageways
• Stroma is elastic connective tissue, allowing lungs to recoiled passively during expiration
• house respiratory passages smaller than the main bronchi

169
Q

Pleurae

A

serous membranes
• Parietal pleura lines thoracic cavity
• Visceral pleura covers external lung surfaces
• Produces lubricating fluid & compartmentalize lungs

170
Q

Tidal volumes

A

the volume or air moved into & out of lung with each breath

171
Q

Inspiratory capacity (IC)

A

sum of TV + IRV

172
Q

Functional residual capacity (FRC)

A

sum of RV + ERV

173
Q

Vital capacity (VC)

A

sum of TV + IRV + ERV

174
Q

Total lung capacity (TLC)

A

sum of all lung volumes (TV + IRV + ERV + RV)

175
Q

What does the heme portion contain

A

4 atoms of iron, each capable of combining with a molecule of O2

176
Q

Carbon dioxide transport

A

CO2 is carried in blood in the form of dissolved CO2, carbaminohemoglobin & bicarbonate ions (main one, 70%))

177
Q

Epimysium

A

sheath of fibrous elastic tissue surrounding a muscle

178
Q

Perimysium

A

sheath of connective tissue surrounding a bundle of muscle fibers

179
Q

Endomysium

A

connective tissue that surrounds individual muscle fibres

Consolidated Health (1 decks)

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