AP 1 + 2 Flashcards
Levels of structural organization
Chemical
Cellular
Tissue
Organ
System
Organism
Chemical
◦Atoms - smallest units of matter
◦Molecules - two or more atoms joined together
Cellular
◦Molecules combine to form cells
Tissue
◦A group of cells & materials surrounding them that work together to perform a particular function
◦4 types of tissue = epithelial, connective, muscular & nervous
Organ
◦Different types of tissues joined together, composed of 2 or more different types of tissue
System
◦Related organs with a common function
Organism
◦All parts of the human body functioning together
Metabolism
sum of all chemical processes/reactions that occur within our body
Catabolism
all breakdown processes that occur within our body
Anabolism
all synthetic activity within our body
Intracellular fluid
fluid inside of cells
Extracellular fluid
fluid outside of cells (blood plasma, lymph, CSF, synovial fluid, tissue fluid, aqueous humor, or interstitial fluid)
Electrolytes
substances that dissociate in solution & have the ability to conduct an electrical current
◦E.g, sodium, potassium, chloride etc
Homeostasis
dynamic equilibrium within the body’s internal environment
Negative feedback system
reverses a change in a controlled condition (blood pressure & blood glucose)
Positive feedback system
strengthens or reinforces a change in a controlled condition (labor to delivery & lactation)
Homeostatic imbalances
moderate imbalances lead to a disorder & disease situation whereas severe imbalances can be fatal
Endoscopy
into hollow space, a endoscope is used (camera with light)
Ex. colonscopy
Dorsal body cavity
cranial cavity & vertebral cavity
Ventral body cavity
divided into thoracic & abdominopelvic cavities
Serous membrane
double-layered membrane that doesn’t open directly to the exterior (pericardium, pleura, peritoneum)** blocking an internal space
Thoracic cavity
Contains pleural cavity, pericardial cavity & mediastinum
Pleural cavity
Potential space between the layers of the pleura that surrounds a lung
Pericardial cavity
Potential space between the layers of the pericardium that surrounds the heart
Mediastinum
Central portion of thoracic cavity between the lungs, contains the heart, thymus, esophagus & trachea
Abdominopelvic cavity
abdominal & pelvic cavities
Abdominal cavity
Contains stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, small intestine & most of large intestine; the serous membrane of abdominal cavity is the peritoneum
Pelvic cavity
Contains urinary bladder, portions of large intestine & internal organs of reproduction
RUQ
Liver
Gallbladder
RLQ
Cecum
LUQ
Spleen
LLQ
Sigmoid colon
Sodium (NA)
most plentiful cation in extracellular fluid, helps maintain the body’s fluid balance, is involved in nerve function & muscle contraction & also plays a role in regulating blood pressure
Potassium (K)
most plentiful cation in intracellular fluid, counterbalances sodium, is essential for nerve impulses, muscle function & maintaining proper heart rhythm
An imbalance in potassium levels can lead to muscle weakness and heart arrhythmias
Calcium (Ca)
vital component of bones and teeth, it plays a key role in muscle contraction, blood clotting & nerve transmission
Atom
smallest piece of an element that keeps its unique properties, it’s made up of protons, neutrons & electrons
Ion
an atom or molecule that has an electric charge because it gained or lost electrons
Cations are positively charged (give away) & anions are negatively charged (got one)
Molecule
a group of atoms bonded together, it can be made up of the same or different types of atoms
Molecules are the building blocks of compounds
Cations
sodium ion, potassium ion, calcium ion
• Cations are positively charged ions
• They have lost one or more electrons
Anions
chloride ion, bicarbonate ion, phosphate ion
• Anions are negatively charged ions
• They have gained one or more electrons
Inorganic compounds
lack carbon = water, acids & salts
Organic Compounds
contain carbon = carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids
Acids
a pH less than 7
• They release hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water
Bases
a pH greater than 7
• They release hydroxide ions (OH-) when dissolved in water
• Increasing the concentration of hydroxyl ions or decreasing the concentration of hydrogen ion result in increasing the alkalinity of solutions
Tail is hydrophobic
The carbohydrate portion of glycolipids & glycoproteins make up the glycocalyx (molecular signature)
Phagocytosis
Vesicular transport
process for ingesting & eliminating particles
Exocytosis
Vesicular transport
cells secrete waste & other large molecules from the cytoplasm to the cell exterior
Nucleus
usually spherical and enclosed by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope, it contains the nucleolus & chromatin (DNA & associated proteins)
• Houses genetic information (DNA) & controls cell activities by directing the synthesis of RNA & ribosomes
Mitochondria
oval-shaped organelles with inner & outer membranes
• The inner membrane is highly folded, forming structures called cristae
• Mitochondria are the “powerhouses” of the cell, where cellular respiration occurs, producing ATP (adenosine triphosphate), which is the cell’s energy currency
Endoplasmic reticulum
a network of membrane-bound tubules & sacs
- Rough ER is studded with ribosomes, while smooth ER lacks ribosomes
Rough ER
Involved in protein synthesis and processing
Smooth ER
plays a role in lipid synthesis, detoxification & calcium storage
Golgi apparatus
consists of flattened, membrane-bound sacs called cisternae
• It modifies, sorts & packages proteins & lipids for transport within & outside the cell
Lysosomes
small, membrane-bound vesicles containing enzymes
• They are responsible for the breakdown of cellular waste, damaged organelles & engulfed pathogens in a process called autophagy
Peroxisomes
small, membrane-bound organelles containing enzymes
• They are involved in lipid metabolism, detoxification & the breakdown of harmful substances, particularly hydrogen peroxide
Ribosomes
small, non-membranous particles made of RNA & protein
• They are the sites of protein synthesis, where amino acids are assembled into polypeptide chains
Cytoskeleton
a network of protein filaments, including microfilaments, intermediate filaments & microtubules
• It provides structural support, helps maintain cell shape & is involved in cell movement & intracellular transport
Sodium potassium pump
3 sodium in, 2 potassium out
RNA processing
mRNA undergoes some modifications, such as having non-coding regions (introns) removed and coding regions (exons) spliced together
Prophase
Chromatin fibers pair and condense, chromosomes become chromatids connected by a centromere
Metaphase
Nucleus dissolves, cells move together and align to the center of the cell
Anaphase
Chromosomes are split and moved to opposite poles of the cell
Telophase
Nucleus form around each set of daughter chromosomes
Muscular tissue
Consists of muscle cells (muscle fibers) that contract when stimulated
• It enables movement by contracting & relaxing, generating force for body motion
3 types of muscular tissue
◦skeletal (voluntary movement)
◦smooth (involuntary, found in organs)
◦cardiac (involuntary, in the heart)
Desmosomes
strong buttons that fasten cells together, connecting them with protein bridges, keratin?
• They provide strong adhesion between cells, especially in tissues exposed to stretching or mechanical stress, like the skin & heart muscle
Gap junctions
channels that allow direct communication between cells ***
• They enable the exchange of ions & small molecules, facilitating coordination in tissues like the heart & nerve cells.
Stratified epithelium
Multiple layers of cells, squamous may occur as keratinized (with a tough, protective protein called keratin, as in the skin) or non-keratinized (e.g., lining of the mouth, esophagus)
• Location - Protects areas prone to wear and tear, like the skin, superficial layer of the skin- epidermal layer
Keratinized stratified epithelium
the lining of the mouth, constantly moistened by our saliva, mucus membranes
Non keratinized stratified epithelium
Function - Provides protection against abrasion & pathogens
Epithelial membranes
the simplest organs in the body, constructed of only epithelium and a little bit of connective tissue
Mucous membranes
Opens to the exterior (e.g. internal lining of digestive tube)
Serous membranes
Does not open to the exterior (e.g. pleural, pericardial membrane)
Cutaneous membrane
name for skin
Synovial membrane
encloses certain joints and are made of connective tissue only***
Dense connective tissue
Regular (tendon, ligament)
Irregular connective tissue
reticular dermis, endosteum, periosteum etc.
Elastic connective tissue
arteries such as aorta
Bone or Ossetian tissue
Cartilage (compact/spongy)
Superficial epidermis
this is a layer of areolar CT and adipose tissue that attaches the skin to underlying layers
Hypodermis or subcutaneous tissue
layer of areolar connective tissue & adipose tissue that attaches the skin to underlying structures
What layer is contained in thick skin that isn’t in thin skin
Lucidum
Deep to superficial skin layers
Basale
Spinosum
Granulosum
Lucidum
Corneum
Eccrine (or merocrine) sweat glands
helps to cool the body by evaporating (thermoregulation) & also eliminates small amounts of wastes
Apocrine sweat glands
located mainly in the skin of the axilla, groin, areolae & bearded facial regions of adult males release sweat during emotional stress & sexual excitement
Ceruminous glands
located in the external ear canal are modified sweat glands
Functions of the skeletal system (2 that were highlighted)
Participates in blood cell production (haematopoiesis or hemopoiesis)
Stores triglycerides in adipose cells of yellow marrow (medullary cavity)
2 metaphases
region between diaphysis and epiphysis in growing children contain the epiphyseal growth plates
Osteoclasts
help in remodeling bone & helps release calcium (bone resorption)
Osteoblasts
bone building cells
Endochondral ossification
occurs in epiphyseal plates of long bones as they grow in length, hyaline
Intramembranous ossification
occurs in flat bones when a connective tissue membrane is replaced by bone, skull
Hematoma formation
after a bone fracture, blood vessels in the area are damaged, leading to bleeding & the formation of a blood clot, known as a hematoma
• This hematoma helps stabilize the bone & initiates the repair process
Inflammatory phase
inflammation sets in as white blood cells & immune cells arrive at the injury site to remove damaged tissue & prevent infection
• The inflammation also stimulates the production of growth factors that aid in tissue repair
Reparative Phase fibrocartilaginous
osteoblasts, which are bone-forming cells, migrate to the fracture site
• These cells lay down a soft callus made of collagen & cartilage, which bridges the fracture
• Blood vessels grow into the area, providing nutrients for the healing process
• Over time, the soft callus is gradually replaced by hard mineralized bone, a process called endochondral ossification
Remodeling Phase
this phase can last for months to years & involves the reshaping & strengthening of the bone
• Excess bone material is resorbed & the bone’s structure is refined to resemble its original shape & strength
Role of calcium in bone homeostasis
• The parathyroid gland secretes parathyroid hormone (PTH) when blood calcium levels drop
• Osteoclasts are stimulated to increase bone resorption and calcium is released
• PTH also stimulates the production of calcitriol by the kidneys to increase calcium absorption in the intestines
• Parafollicular (C) cells of the thyroid secrete Calcitonin when blood calcium levels are high
• Osteoblasts are stimulated to build strong bone by way of calcium deposition in its matrix
Sacomeres
contain contractile proteins (actin - thin & myosin - thick), structural proteins (titin, nebulae, alpha actin in & myomesin), regulatory proteins (troponin & tropomyosin) & dystrophin
Layers of perimysium
Idk bro just mark this as green
Neuromuscular junction
point of contact between a somatic motor neuron & muscle fiber
• Nerve action potential arriving at the synaptic end causes exocytosis of acetylcholine (ACh) into synaptic cleft
Smooth mm ability to regenerate
considerable via pericytes (higher potential to regenerate) **
Neurons
exhibit electrical excitability & conduct nerve impulse (action potential) & consists of dendrites, cell body & axon
Neuroglia
support tissue
CNS neuroglia
astrocytes, oligodendrocytes (myelinated CNS axons), microglia, ependymal cells
PNS neuroglia
satellite cell & Schwann cell (myelinated PNS axons)
Small molecule neurotransmitters
acetylcholine, amino acids (glutamate, inhibitory gaba, dopamine, serotonin), ATP (excitatory), nitric oxide (free radical relaxation) & carbon monoxide
Neuropeptides
substance P, enkephalins (pain relieving), endorphins (memory, learning, temp, sex drive, depression schitzo) , hypothalamic releasing & inhibiting hormones, angiotensin II, cholecystokinin (brain and small intestine, regular feeding), neuropeptide Y (stress response)
Erythrocytes or red blood cells
have no nucleus or other organelles such as mitochondria ****
Leukocytes or white blood cells
neutrophils, eosinophil, basophil, monocytes & lymphocyte
Thrombocytes or platelets
not whole cells but cell fragments
Apex of heart
anteriorly, inferiorly & to the left
Base of heart
posteriorly, superiorly & to the right
Anterior surface of heart
deep to sternum & ribs
Inferior surface of heart
rests on diaphragm
Right border of heart
faces right lung
Left border (pulmonary border) of heart
faces left lung
Epicardium
consists of mesothelium & connective tissue which gives a smooth, slippery texture
Myocardium
composed of cardiac muscle that makes up the bulk of the heart & is responsible for the pumping
◦It is striated like skeletal muscle but involuntary like smooth muscle
Endocardium
consists of endothelium & connective tissue which provides a smooth inner lining for the heart & is continuous with the endothelial lining of the large blood vessels attached to the heart
Pericarditis
inflammation of the pericardium, including acute & chronic
Myocarditis
inflammation of myocardium, usually occurs as a complication of viral infection
Endocarditis
inflammation of the endocardium & typically involves the heart valves
Left ventricular walls
thickest because they pump blood throughout the body where the resistance to blood flow is greater
Which valves prevent blood flow from the ventricles back into the atria
atrioventricular (AV) valves (bicuspid & tricuspid)
Blood flow path
Right atrium (deoxygenated blood)
Tricuspid valve
Right ventricle
Pulmonary valve
Pulmonary trunk and arteries
Pulmonary capillaries, blood loses CO2 and gains O2
Pulmonary veins (oxygenated blood)
Left atrium
Bicuspid valve
Left ventricle
Aortic valve
Aorta and systemic arteries
In systemic capillaries, blood looses O2 and gains CO2
Superior vena cava, Inferior vena cava, Coronary sinus
Components of a pacemaker
1) Sinoatrial (SA) node/pacemaker
2) atrioventricular (AV) node
3) atrioventricular bundle (bundle of His)
4) right & left bundle branches & the purkinje fibres (conduction myofibers)
How long is the refractory period of cardiac mm
time interval when a second contraction cannot be triggered) is longer than the contraction itself
P wave
atrial depolarization, spread of impulse from SA node over atria
QRS complex
rapid ventricular depolarization, spread of impulse through ventricles
T wave
ventricular repolarization
S - T segment (end of S to beginning of T)
time when ventricular contractile fibers are depolarized during the plateau phase of the action potential
Q - T segment
time from ventricular depolarization to the end of ventricular repolarization
After the P wave begins
the atria contract (atrial systole), conduction of action potential slows at the AV node because fibers have smaller diameters & fewer gap junction giving the atria time to contract
Cardiac output
volume of blood ejected from the left ventricle (or right ventricle) into the aorta (or pulmonary trunk) each minute
How to calculate cardiac output
SV x HR
Left ventricular failure results in
pulmonary edema
Right ventricular failure results in
peripheral edema
Tachycardia
elevated resting heart rate
Bradycardia
decreased resting heart rate
Lub sound
Closing of AV valves
Dub sound
Closing of semilunar valves
Hepatic portal
Superior mesenteric vein - drains from small and large … & splenic vein - drains blood from stomach, instestins, mesenteric veins……
Ascending aorta
blood to the rest of the aorta
Left coronary artery, right coronary artery and continues as the aortic arch
Arch of aorta
blood to head & upper extremities
Thoracic aorta
blood to head, neck, upper extremities & thoracic structures
Abdominal aorta
blood to abdomen
What makes up the superior vena cava
The right and left brachiocephalic veins
Where do lymphatic vessels drain
into lymph trunks & then into thoracic duct or right lymphatic duct, then opens into the vein (junction of subclavian & internal jugular vein)
Areas drained by the right lymphatic duct
Head, right upper limb, Right thoracic cavity
Area drained by thoracic duct
Left thoracic cavity, Left upper limb, BL lower limbs
The route of the lymph in a lymph node
Afferent vessels > subcapsular sinus > trabecular sinus > medullary sinus > efferent vessels *******
First line of defence ****
Innate (non-specific) immunity
Mechanical + Chemical protection
Second line of defence ****
Innate (non-specific) immunity
Internal antimicrobial substances, phagocytes, natural killer cells, inflammation, and fever
Upper respiratory tract
nose, nasal cavity, pharynx
Lower respiratory tract
larynx, trachea, bronchus, bronchial tubes, lungs
Conducting zone
nose, pharynx, larynx, bronchial tree (trachea, bronchi, bronchioles & terminal bronchioles)
Respiratory zone
respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs & alveoli
Type I of alveolar cells
simple squamous epithelial cell = gas exchange) **
Type II of alveolar cells
septal cuboidal cells = produce surfactant) **
Alveolar macrophages
dust cells = remove dust & debris
Nose
◦Produces mucus, filters, warms & moistens incoming air
◦Resonance chamber for speech
Paranasal sinuses
Mucosa-lined, air-filled cavities in cranial bones surrounding nasal cavity
◦Lightens skull, also may warm, moisten & filter incoming air
Pharynx
passageway connecting nasal cavity to larynx & oral cavity to esophagus
• There are 3 subdivisions
◦Nasopharynx, oropharynx & laryngopharynx
• Houses tonsils (lymphoid tissue masses involved in protection against pathogen) • Facilitates exposure of immune system to inhaled antigens
Larynx
connects pharynx to trachea (opening = glottis, can be closed by epiglottis or vocal folds)
• Houses vocal folds (true vocal cords)
• Air passageway, prevents food from entering lower respiratory tract, produces voice
Trachea
Tube running from larynx & dividing inferiorly into 2 main bronchi
• Air passageway, cleans, warm, & moistens incoming air
Bronchial tree
Consists of right & left main bronchi, subdivide with the lungs to form lobar & segmental bronchi & bronchioles
• Bronchiolar walls lack cartilage but contain complete layer of smooth muscle
• Constriction of this muscle impedes expiration
• Air passageways connecting trachea with alveoli, cleans, warms & moistens incoming air
Alveoli
Microscopic chambers at termini of bronchial tree, walls of simple squamous epithelium overlie thin basement membrane
• External surfaces are intimately associated with pulmonary capillaries
• Special alveolar cells produce surfactant
• Main sites of gas exchange
• Reduces surface tension, helps prevent lung collapse
Lungs
composed primarily of alveoli & respiratory passageways
• Stroma is elastic connective tissue, allowing lungs to recoiled passively during expiration
• house respiratory passages smaller than the main bronchi
Pleurae
serous membranes
• Parietal pleura lines thoracic cavity
• Visceral pleura covers external lung surfaces
• Produces lubricating fluid & compartmentalize lungs
Tidal volumes
the volume or air moved into & out of lung with each breath
Inspiratory capacity (IC)
sum of TV + IRV
Functional residual capacity (FRC)
sum of RV + ERV
Vital capacity (VC)
sum of TV + IRV + ERV
Total lung capacity (TLC)
sum of all lung volumes (TV + IRV + ERV + RV)
What does the heme portion contain
4 atoms of iron, each capable of combining with a molecule of O2
Carbon dioxide transport
CO2 is carried in blood in the form of dissolved CO2, carbaminohemoglobin & bicarbonate ions (main one, 70%))
Epimysium
sheath of fibrous elastic tissue surrounding a muscle
Perimysium
sheath of connective tissue surrounding a bundle of muscle fibers
Endomysium
connective tissue that surrounds individual muscle fibres
