AO1s

Question 1

What is attachment?

Answer 1

Attachment is an emotional bond formed between an infant and their primary caregiver, usually reciprocal.

Question 2

What is reciprocity?

Answer 2

Reciprocity is when an infant responds to the actions of another person in the form of turn-taking. With reciprocity, the actions of one person (i.e. the primary caregiver) elicit a response from the other (i.e. the infant).

Question 3

Who described reciprocity as a ‘dance’ because when a couple dance
together they each respond to one another’s movements and rhythm?

Answer 3

Brazelton et al. (1975)

Question 4

2 reasons why reciprocity may be important

Answer 4

• It has been said that reciprocity is important in teaching the child to communicate.
• It also allows the parent to better care for the child as they can detect certain cues from the baby and respond to their needs sooner and more effectively.

Question 5

What is sensitive responsivness as defined by Ainsworth?

Answer 5

Sensitive responsiveness is typically defined as the extent to which a parent is** in-tune** with a child’s emotional state, is able to decode those signals accurately, and able to respond appropriately and in a timely fashion (Ainsworth et al., 1978)

Question 6

Feldman (2007) on reciprocity

Answer 6

From around three months old, according to Feldman (2007), reciprocity increases in frequency as the infant and caregiver pay increasing attention to each other’s verbal and facial communication

Question 7

What is interactional synchrony?

Answer 7

Mother and baby reflect both the actions and the emotions of the other and do this in a coordinated (synchronised way)

Question 8

Outline research into interactional synchrony

Answer 8

MELTZOFF AND MOORE 1977

METHOD
* Meltzoff and Moore used a controlled observation to examine interactional synchrony in infants.
* They videotaped 12- 21 day-old babies as they watched an adult experimenter perform different facial expressions.
* An adult model would display one of three facial expressions and the child’s response to the adult was filmed.

RESULTS/CONCLUSION
* There was a clear association between the adult model’s behaviour and the child’s behaviour.
* Imitation was found in babies as young as two weeks old.
* Later research found the same findings in 3-day-old infants, which suggests that interactional synchrony is innate.

Question 9

Conclusions by meltzoff and moore 1977 4 stages

Answer 9

Melzoff believed this to be an innate ability and occurs in four stages:

1. Infant perceives the action to be copied
2. Infant represents this mentally
3. Infant translates it into similar actions of their own
4. Infant organises motor response so it coordinates with other persons.

Question 10

What are the are stages of attachment? Include the ages and description

Answer 10

1. ASOCIAL - from birth to 6 weeks -this is when the infant responds to objects and people similarly - but may respond more to faces and eyes
2. INDISCRIMINATE - from 6 weeks to 6 months - infant now shows a preference for human company over non-human company. They can distinguish between different people, but are comforted indiscriminately (by anyone) and do not show stranger anxiety yet
3. SPECIFIC - 7 to 12 months - An infant shows a preference for one caregiver, displaying
   separation and stranger anxiety. The infant looks to a
   particular person for security and protection. The infant
   shows joy upon reunion and are comforted by their primary
   caregiver
4. MULTIPLE - 12 months + - Attachment behaviours are now displayed towards several
   different people e.g. siblings, grandparents etc. and are
   sometimes referred to as secondary attachments. They
   typically form in the first month after the primary
   attachment is formed and the number of multiple attachments which develop depends on the social circle to whom the infant is exposed.

Question 11

Outline the aim and method of a study into attachment stages

Answer 11

Key Study: Schaffer and Emerson (1964)
Longitudinal study
Aim: To examine the formation of early attachments.

Method: Their sample consisted of 60 babies (31 male, 29 female) from working class families in Glasgow
aged between 5–23 weeks at the start of the investigation. The researchers visited the babies in their
homes, every month for the first 12 months and then once again at 18 months. The researchers
interviewed the mothers and observed the children in relation to separation and stranger anxiety in a
range of everyday activities.

Question 12

Outline the results and conclusions of a study into the stages of attachment

Answer 12

Results: The results provided some support for the different stages of developing an attachment. At
around 25–32 weeks, 50% of the children showed separation anxiety towards their mothers, expected of
the discriminate attachment stage. Furthermore, by 40 weeks, 80% of the children had a specific (discriminate) attachment and 30% had started to form multiple attachments.

Conclusion: The results provide some support for Schaffer’s stages of attachment and suggest that attachment develops through a series of stages across the first year of life.

Question 13

What is separation anxiety?

Answer 13

Signs of distress when the carer leaving, and how much the infant needs to be comforted when the carer returns

Question 14

What is stranger anxiety?

Answer 14

Signs of distress as a response to a stranger
arriving

Question 15

What is social referencing?

Answer 15

How often the infant looks at their carer to check how they should respond to something new

Question 16

What did Schaffer and Emmerson suggest about the role of the father?

Answer 16

• The most common second attachment formed was with the father
• This was the case in 27% of the initial sample and at 18 months 75% had formed an attachment with their father
• The role of fathers has significantly developed since then and many men are more hands-on with their children than in the 1960s

Question 17

3 explanations on the role of the father

Answer 17

• biological
• playmate
• sensitive responsiveness

Question 18

Biological reasoning for why fathers are less likely to be primary attachment figures

Answer 18

• One explanation for the role of the father is the biological explanation.
• Some claim that men are simply not equipped to form an attachment.
• Biological evidence suggests that the hormone oestrogen underlies caring behaviour in women and the lack of oestrogen in men is why they are unable to form a close attachment.

Question 19

Explain the father’s role as a playmate

Answer 19

• Fathers may have an important role to play as secondary attachment figures.
• Other researchers argue that fathers do not take on a caregiver role and in fact provide a different role: as a playmate.
• Research has consistently highlighted the fact that fathers are more playful, physically active and generally better at providing challenging situations for their children.
• It may be seen that a lack of sensitivity from fathers can be seen as positive because it fosters problem-solving by making greater communicative and cognitive demands on children. (White and Woolett, 1992)

Question 20

Explain the father’s potential for sensitive responsiveness

Answer 20

Finally, some researchers argue that fathers can demonstrate sensitive responsiveness and respond to the needs of their children and therefore can form a strong emotional tie or bond.
Nevertheless, men can form secure attachments with their children, as is the case in single (male) parent families.
Research has found that in two-parent families where the father is the primary caregiver, both parents often share the role of the primary attachment figure (Frank et al. 1997).
So, men can be primary attachment figures, but biological and social factors may discourage this.

Question 21

(Geiger, 1996) on the father being the playmate

Answer 21

Geiger (1996) found that father’s play interactions were more exciting in comparison to mother’s, which were more affectionate and nurturing.

Question 22

Heerman et al. (1994) on emotional sensitivity

Answer 22

Heerman et al. (1994) found that men seem to lack the emotional sensitivity to infant cues that women offer spontaneously.

Question 23

Grossman (2002) on role of the father

Answer 23

Conducted a longitudinal study looking at how the quality of relationships between parents and children changed from infancy to the teenage years
It was found that the early attachment to the mother was a better predictor of what the teenage relationship was like
It seems the father is less important to later development than the mother in terms of nurture
However, Grossman found that if the father had engaged in active play with the child when they were young, the adolescent relationship with BOTH parents is strengthened
This supports Geiger’s work

Question 24

2 marks

Explain what is meant by multiple attachments

Answer 24

Multiple attachments are attachments to two or more people. Research has shown that most babies are able to form multiple attachments once they have formed a specific attachment to their main caregiver.

Question 25

Outline Bowlby’s monotropic theory of attachment. This is the evolutionary theory of attachment. It states that attachments are innate, i.e you are born with it. The acronym, ASCMI (like ‘ask me’), summarises the theory.

Answer 25

A = adaptive
S = social releasers
C = critical period
M = monotropy
I = internal working model

Question 26

What is ‘adaptive’ - Bowlby’s theory

Answer 26

Attachments are an advantage, or beneficial to survival as it ensures a child is kept safe, warm and fed

Question 27

What are social releasers - Bowlby

Answer 27

Social releasers – e.g. a cute face on a baby. A social behaviour or characteristic that elicits caregiving and leads to an attachment

Question 28

What is the critical period - Bowlby

Answer 28

This is the time in which an attachment can form i.e. up to 2.5 years old. Bowby suggested that if an attachment is not formed in this time, it never will. If an attachment does not form, you will be socially, emotionally, intellecturally and physically stunted.

Bowlby demonstrated this in his 44 juvenile thieves study, where maternal deprivation was associated with affectionless psychopathy and mental retardation.

Question 29

What is monotropy? - Bowlby

Answer 29

Bowlby suggested that you can only form one special intense attachment (this is typically but not always with the mother). This attachment is unique, stronger and different to others. Maternal deprivation, which is characterised by a lack of a mother figure during the critical period for attachment formation, results in emotional and intellectual developmental deficits i.e. affection less psychopathy and mental retardation.

Question 30

What is the IWM - Bowlby

Answer 30

This is an area in the brain, a mental schema for relationships where information that allows you to know how to behave around people is stored. The model represents /gives a mental view of relationship with primary figure and acts as a template for future relationships. Internal working models are our perception of the attachment we have with our primary attachment
figure. Therefore, this explains similarities in attachment patterns across families. Those who have a dysfunctional internal working model will seek out dysfunctional relationships and behave dysfunctionally within them.

Question 31

Bowlby’s (1953) Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis QUOTE

Answer 31

“mother-love in infancy and childhood is as important for mental health as are vitamins and proteins for physical health”

Question 32

What is deprivation?

Answer 32

This is when the child is deprived of either their primary caregiver as a whole or elements of their emotional care, which leads to developmental issues with the child. They have had a primary caregiver but this has been interrupted, permanently.

Question 33

What is privation?

Answer 33

Privation is different from deprivation in that the infant never has a primary caregiver figure, and so never even gets close to forming an attachment.

Question 34

The critical period in terms of Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation

Answer 34

If an attachment is disrupted or not formed with a mother figure (who provides adequate care) in the first 30 months of life (from birth) then it is too late and the child will possibly never form any attachments at all

Bowlby believed psychological damage was inevitable past this point, and he also claimed there was a risk up until the age of 5

Question 35

What are the 3 consequences of maternal deprivation?

Answer 35

Delayed social development: Behaviour is often delinquent and outside of social norms

Delayed intellectual development: Due to the deprivation, children often have low cognitive functions and a low IQ

Delayed emotional development: Bowlby claimed that children who had maternal deprivation could not experience guilt or strong emotion is known as affectionless psychopathy

Question 36

Outline the aim and procedure of Bowlby’s 44 thieves study

Answer 36

Aim

To examine the links between maternal deprivation and affectionless psychopathy

Procedure

Sample: 44 participants, consisting of teenage criminals accused of stealing
Participants were interviewed for signs of affectionless psychopathy (lack of guilt for their actions, lack of empathy for their victims, lack of affection)

Researchers also interviewed the participant’s families to see if there was prolonged early separation (deprivation) from their mothers/ mother figure

There was a control group of 44 non-criminal teenagers who had emotional problems were also assessed to see how maternal deprivation affected the children who were not thieves

Question 37

Outline the 4 findings of Bowlby’s 44 thieves study

Answer 37

• 14 of the thieves could be described as affectionless psychopaths
• 12 of the 14 had been affected by prolonged separation from their mothers in the first two years of their lives
• Only 2 in the non-criminal group were subjected to prolonged separation
• None of the control group were diagnosed as affectionless psychopaths

Question 38

Define institutionalisation

Answer 38

Institutionalisation is when children live in institutions, such as hospitals or orphanages, for extended periods of time.

Question 39

Outline the aim and method of research into institutionalisation

Answer 39

To investigate the effects of institutionalisation in a group of 165 Romanian orphans.

METHOD

• Studied a group of about 165 Romanian orphans and assessed them at 4, 6, 11, 15 years old, in terms of psychological, emotional and physical development.
• Control group of 52 British children
• Longitudinal study and natural experiment

Question 40

Outline the 3 findings of Rutter’s study and the date as well

Answer 40

58 children adopted before six months of age showed ‘normal’ development and had an average IQ of 102.

59 children adopted after six months of age exhibited high levels of disinhibited attachment and had an average IQ of 86.

48 children adopted after the age of two years exhibited high levels of disinhibited attachment and had an average IQ score of 77.

Question 41

Outline conclusions of Rutter’s study

Answer 41

The study concluded that institutionalisation and deprivation have long-term, severe effects on emotional, social, cognitive and even intellectual development.

The earlier adoption occurs, the less severe the long-term effects of institutionalisation and deprivation, as children have the opportunity to form attachments.

Question 42

Using an example of an attachment research study, explain what is meant by ‘institutionalisation’. (4 marks)

Answer 42

Start by giving the definition of the key term: Institutionalisation is when children live in institutions, such as hospitals or orphanages, for extended periods of time. Then, bring in an attachment study and link it to the definition: Rutter’s ERA study followed Romanian orphans after they had been adopted in the UK. He found that the longer a child had been institutionalised, the lower their IQ was. Children who had been adopted before 6 months had an IQ of 102, children adopted between six months and 2 years had an IQ of 86, and children adopted after 2 years had an IQ of only 77. Therefore, Rutter concluded that institutionalisation impacted intelligence.

Question 43

What is affectionless psychopathy characterised by?

Answer 43

Affectionless psychopathy is characterized by a lack of concern for others, absence of guilt, and difficulty forming meaningful relationships

Question 44

What is meant by disinhibited attachment?

Answer 44

Disinhibited attachment is a form of insecure attachments where children do not discriminate between people to whom they try to attach to, being overly friendly, clingy and attention seeking

Question 45

What are some effects of institutionalisation?

Answer 45

Physical underdevelopment-children in institutional care are usually physically small.Gardner(1972) said that lack of emotional care rather than poor nourishment causes deprivation dwarfism.

Mental retardation-In Rutter’s study the children were assessed as mentally retarded when they first arrived in Britian.Those adopted before the age of 6 months caught up by the age of 4.This suggest that emotional development and damage to intellectual development as a result of institutionalisation can be recovered if adoption takes place before the age of 6 months.

Disinhibited attachment-a form of insecure attachment where children do not discriminate between people they choose as attachment figures.Such children are equally friendly to those who they know as well as strangers.This is unusual behaviour.

Question 46

Outline a research procedure into the internal working model

Answer 46

Hazan and Shaver 1987

‘Love Quiz’

PROCEDURE

• ‘Love Quiz’ in the rocky mountain news
• Questions on current and past attachment
• Questions about attitude towards love to assess the IWM
• 620 responses (205 men, 415 women)

Question 47

Outline research findings into the internal working model

Answer 47

Hazan and Shaver 1987

FINDINGS

• 56% secure
• 25% insecure avoidant
• 19% insecure resistant
• positive correlation between attachment type and love experiences. securely attached adults described experiences as being happy, friendly and trusting.
• correlation betwen conception of love and attachment type (secure attachments have positie IWM).
• 59% of secure say in some relationships, love really lasts and it doesn’t fade away.

Question 48

Fathers were rarely the first sole object of attachment (____%) but ____% of them were the joint first object

Answer 48

Fathers were rarely the first sole object of attachment (3%) but **27% **of them were the joint first object

Question 49

According to Schafer and Emerson (1964), is the primary attachment figure the one who spends the most time with the child?

Answer 49

Primary attachments were not always formed with the person who spent most time with the child. Intensely attached infants had mothers who responded quickly and sensitively to their signals and who offered them the most interaction.

Question 50

What does Ainsworth mean by ‘secure base’?

Answer 50

Ainsworth’s concept of an attachment figure as a ‘secure base’ for infants’ exploration emphasises the significance of maternal sensitivity in the development of mother-infant attachment patterns.

Question 51

Outline strange situation Aim and procedure

Answer 51

Ainsworth’s concept of an attachment figure as a ‘secure base’ for infants’ exploration emphasizes the significance of maternal sensitivity in the development of mother-infant attachment patterns.
- This study examined individual differences in attachment (secure and insecure) and explored infants’ reactions to mild stress caused by separation from the primary caregiver and the presence of a stranger.
- Conducted in a purpose-built laboratory playroom, infants aged 12-18 months were observed via video cameras while interacting with their mothers.
- The playroom featured two chairs and a play area with age-appropriate toys.

• Ainsworth’s research consisted of a series of 8 situations;
• Mother and Infant enter the room, Infant free to play with toys, Mother sits on chair and reads magazine.
• 3 minutes later, stranger enters and talks with mother.
• The stranger attempts to interact with infant.
• Mother leaves the room, stranger alone with infant. Stranger comforts infant if they are upset and offers to play with them
• 3 minutes later, mother returns, stranger leaves.
• 3 minutes later, mother leaves (baby alone in room).
• Stranger re-enters offers to play/comfort infant.
• Mother returns and stranger leaves.

Question 52

Outline 2 ways in which strange situation can be modified to be more realistic

Answer 52

• measure attachment type in the home/a more familiar environment: to improve the ecological
  validity of the measure of attachment type
• use different caregivers: to get a wider measure of baby’s attachment as most babies in real life
  have multiple attachments
• make the observations covert: to ensure mother’s behaviours towards infant are more natural
  (improve internal validity)
• make multiple observations over time as a more realistic assessment of usual attachment type
  would be achieved.

Question 53

What is attachment type B? What percentage of babies showed this?

Answer 53

Type B: Secure Attachment (60-75%):
Infants explore the environment, use the caregiver as a secure base, show** moderate distress** when separated, seek comfort upon reunion, and prefer caregiver over a stranger.

Question 54

What is attachment type A? What percentage of babies showed this?

Answer 54

Type A: Insecure-Avoidant (20-25%):

Infants show** little interaction** with the mother, no anxiety when left with a stranger, make no effort to approach the mother upon her return, and are content exploring the environment without seeking her presence.

Question 55

What is attachment type C? What percentage?

Answer 55

Type C: Insecure-Resistant (3%):

Infants become highly distressed when separated, struggle to be consoled upon reunion, display mixed emotions including anger, and resist the stranger’s attempts at interaction. Limited exploration of the environment occurs, and the caregiver’s behavior is inconsistent.

Question 56

Outline Lorenz’ study into attachment

Answer 56

Lorenz (1935) investigated imprinting in order to determine how it impacts the critical period of attachment.

He did this by randomly dividing a clutch of geese eggs, leaving half of them to half-hatch in an incubator and the first living object (moving) they saw was Lorenz and the other half to half-hatch were with their natural mother. Once hatched, the two groups were mixed up and Lorenz observed who/what they followed. Lorenz varied the time between birth and seeing a moving object so he could measure the critical period for imprinting.

Lorenz found that the goslings quickly divided themselves up, one following their natural mother and the other group following Lorenz. Lorenz’s brood showed no recognition of their natural mother. This means they missed the critical period for imprinting with their natural mother

Question 57

What is meant by imprinting? Who investigated this?

Answer 57

Lorenz 1935

Imprinting is a type of innate learning in animals immediately after birth or hatching to recognise their caregiver for food and protection. This enables them to develop behavioral patterns related to mating, socialising, and surviving specific to their species.

Question 58

Outline Harlow’s study into rhesus monkeys

Answer 58

Harry Harlow (1959) conducted landmark research on attachment. He called the research report the ‘origins of love’ and sought to demonstrate how attachment was not based on the feeding bond between mother and infant.

In his experiment, Harlow created two wire mothers each with a different head. One wire mother additionally was wrapped in soft cloth. 8 Infant rhesus monkeys were studied for a period of 165 days. For four of the monkeys the milk bottle was on the cloth-covered mother, and on the plain mother for the other 4. During that time, measurements were made of the amount of time each monkey spent with the two mothers. Observations were also made of the monkey infants responses when frightened by for example a mechanical teddy bear. All 8 monkeys spent most of their time with the cloth covered mother whether or not it had the feeding bottle. The monkeys who fed from the wire mother only spent a short amount of time getting milk and then returned to the cloth covered mother. When frightened all monkeys clung to the cloth covered mother and when playing with new toys monkeys often kept one foot on the cloth covered mother for reassurance.

These findings suggest that infants do not develop an attachment to the person who feeds them but to the person who offers them comfort.

Question 59

Who states that on a biological level, all mammalian species have the same brain structure as humans -the only difference being in terms of size and the number of connections

Answer 59

Green (1994)

Question 61

Outline learning theory of attachment. who proposed it?

Answer 61

Learning theory explains how infants learn to become attached through the processes of classical or operant conditioning. It is sometimes called the ‘cupboard love’ theory because of the focus on food. Proposed by Dollard & Miller (1950), the secondary drive hypothesis is the concept that an attachment is learned through operant and classical conditioning.

They also proposed that attachment is a mutual process that the caregiver learns as well, and this happens through negative reinforcement when the caregiver feels relief because the infant stops being distressed. Classical conditioning is learning by association. Before conditioning, food is an unconditioned stimulus (US) which produces an unconditioned response (UR) of pleasure as a relief from hunger. The caregiver is a neutral stimulus (NS), who produces no conditioned response. During conditioning, the child associates the caregiver (NS) who feeds them with the food (US). Through repeated pairing, the caregiver becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) that is associated with the pleasure of feeding. This results in the caregiver eliciting a conditioned response from the child and the formation of an attachment.

Operant conditioning proposes that when an infant feels hungry it is motivated to reduce the unpleasant feelings so it cries to receive comfort. When the caregiver provides food, a feeling of pleasure is produced which is rewarding as drive reduction is reduced. The attachment will occur because the infant will seek a caregiver who can supply the reward. This is derived from Dollard and Miller’s hypotheses which suggest that primary drives, which are vital for survival, such as satisfying hunger, are linked to secondary drives such as emotional intimacy.