AO1 Memory Flashcards
Capacity
Amount of information held in a memory store
STM= limited (approx 7 items)
LTM= unlimited
Duration
How long the memory lasts
Coding
How memory is processed and stored
Iconic store
Visual input (what we see)
Echoic store
Auditory input (what we hear)
Haptic store
Tactile input (what we feel/touch)
Sperling (1960) sensory memory
-Aim: to investigate the capacity and duration of sensory memory
-Method: Participants saw a grid of digits and letters for 50 milliseconds. They were either asked to recall the entire grid or after a specific tone, recall a particular row
-Results: Participants had a high recall accuracy for the indicated row, suggesting sensory memory can hold all information briefly, but that it decays rapidly if not attended to
-Conclusion: Sensory memory has a large capacity but a very short duration
Jacobs (1887) -Short term memory- digit span technique
-Aim: To measure the capacity of STM for numbers and letters
-Method: Participants were read a sequence of numbers or letters, gradually increasing until they could no longer recall the sequence in the correct order
-Results: The mean span for digits was 9.3 items, while for letters, it was 7.3 items
-Conclusion: STM has a limited capacity
Evaluation of Jacobs study on the capacity of STM
-Lacks Validity: The study was conducted a long time ago and early research often lacked adequate controls. Distractions or confounding variables may have impacted results, reducing validity.
-Despite the validity concerns, the results of Jacobs study have been replicated in later research, supporting its reliability
Miller (1956) - STM-‘The magical number seven, Plus or Minus Two’
-Aim: To investigate the capacity of STM
-Method: Observations of everyday memory patterns, including studies on digit span and chunking
-Results: Miller proposed that STM can hold around 7 + or - two chunks of information and that capacity can be increased by chunking information
-Conclusion: STM has a limited capacity that can be enhanced through chunking, but without chunking, it holds fewer items.
Evaluation of Miller (1956) study on capacity of the STM
-Jacobs (1887) conducted a digit span test and found similar STM capacity, adding more credibility to Miller’s findings
-Cowan (2001) argued STM capacity may actually be closer to 4 chunks, suggesting Miller’s estimate may be too high. This suggests that STM capacity could vary depending on experimental conditions
-Chunking is a widely applicable strategy for improving memory, such as in phone number recall. This suggests practical value in Miller’s research, particularly for everyday tasks involving memory
Why is LTM capacity more difficult to measure directly
Because of the vast and complex nature of information stored over a lifetime
Peterson and Peterson (1959) study on STM duration
-Aim: To investigate the duration of STM when rehearsal is prevented
-Method: Participants were presented with trigrams (e.g JFW) and asked to count backwards to prevent rehearsal, with recall intervals from 3 to 18 seconds
-Results: The accuracy of recall dropped significantly after a few seconds, with only 10% recall after 18 seconds
-Conclusion: STM duration is very limited (around 18 seconds) without rehearsal, supporting the MSM’s claim of discrete memory components
Evaluation of Peterson and Peterson’s (1959) study on STM duration
-The use of a laboratory setting allowed the researchers to control extraneous variables, giving the study high internal validity and making the results reliable and replicable
-The study’s use of meaningless trigrams reduces external validity, as it may not accurately represent how people use memory in real world contexts. STM may differ for more meaningful information
-The sample consisted of psychology students who may have guessed the study’s purpose or may have had prior knowledge of memory studies, potentially meaning demand characteristics. This means the findings may not be generalisable to the broader population
-Alternative findings:
Reitman (1974) found that STM duration could last longer with auditory rather than visual stimuli, suggesting STM duration may vary with different types of information
Bahrick et al (1975) on LTM duration
-Aim: To investigate the duration of LTM using real life memories
-Method: 392 American graduates age 17-74 were tested on their recall of high school classmates names from yearbook photos through recognition and free recall tasks
-Results: Participants achieved 90% accuracy for recognition after 15 years and 70% after 48 years, although free recall accuracy was lower
-Conclusion: LTM has a potentially lifelong duration, especially for meaningful or familiar information
Evaluation of Bahrick et al (1975) study on LTM duration
-Using yearbook photos provides a real life context, enhancing the study’s ecological validity and suggesting that Bahrick’s findings can be applied to everyday memory
-The sample of American graduates may limit the generalisability of findings to other cultural or social groups. People from different educational systems or life backgrounds might perform differently on similar tasks
-Potential confounding variables
Some participants may have stayed in contact with classmates over the years, potentially reinforcing their memory and affecting their results. This complicates interpretations of LTM’s true duration
-Alternative findings:
Shepard (1967) found that memory recall for pictures declined less over time than for verbal recall, indicating that different types of information may be retained differently in LTM
Baddeley (1966) study on STM coding
-Aim: To investigate how information is coded in STM and LTM
-Method: Participants were presented with 4 lists of words: acoustically similar, acoustically dissimilar, semantically similar and semantically dissimilar. Immediate and delayed recall was tested
-Results: STM recall was more challenging with acoustically similar words with LTM was harder with semantically similar words
-Conclusion: STM primarily uses acoustic coding while LTM primarily uses semantic coding
Evaluation of Baddeley’s study on STM coding
-The controlled word lists provided clear evidence that STM and LTM use different coding methods, supporting the multi store model of memory. This also allows for replication, making the findings more reliable
-The use of word lists may lack ecological validity, as it does not reflect the way memory is used in real life situations , where information is usually more meaningful and varied
-The study focused on only acoustic and semantic coding, overlooking other forms of encoding, such as visual or olfactory coding. This limits our understanding of the flexibility and complexity of memory processes
-Supporting research:
Brandimonte et al (1992) found that when verbal rehearsal was prevented, participants used visual encoding, suggesting that STM can flexibly use different types of coding, depending on the task
Meaning of acoustically similar and acoustically dissimilar
Similar- similar sounding words
Not similar- words that sounded different
Meaning of semantically similar and semantically dissimilar
similar- Words with similar meanings
not similar- words with different meanings
What is the duration of LTM
Unlimited/ a life time
What type of coding does STM mainly use
Mainly acoustic (by sound)
What type of coding does LTM mainly use
Mainly semantic (by meaning)
Baddeley- LTM coding
-If participants were asked to recall the word list after a time interval of 20 minutes (LTM recall) they did worse with the semantically dissimilar words.
-This suggests that information is coded semantically in LTM
Who proposed the Multi store Model of Memory
Atkinson and Shriffin (1968)
What else is the Multi store model referred to as and why
The ‘modal model’ as it was widely used for a long time
How does the MSM explain the memory
-A linear process involving 3 distinct stores: sensory register, short term memory and long term memory
-Information flows from one store to the next in a sequential manner, depending on processes such as attention, rehearsal and retrieval
How many stores is there in the multi store model
-Sensory register
-STM memory
-LTM memory
What information does the sensory register store
-Briefly stores information from our senses e.g sights, sounds, smells, touch
What is the capacity of sensory memory
-Very large, as it briefly holds all sensory information as we encounter it
Duration of sensory memory
Very brief, lasting only milliseconds
Examples of the different sensory registers that the sensory memory uses
-Iconic memory (visual info)
-Echoic memory ( auditory info)
What coding does the sensory memory use
Based on the sense involved
(E.g visual = iconic store)
Where is sensory memory transferred to once it has been attended to
STM
Duration of the STM
-Limited
-Around 18-30 seconds unless rehearsal is used to keep it active
Capacity of the STM
-Limited to about 7 + or - 2 items (Miller 1956).
-Chunking can extend this capacity
What method can be used to increase the capacity of the STM
Chunking
What keeps the memory active in the STM and transfers it to the LTM
Rehearsal
Once information is store in LTM it can be retrieved into STM for use
Key processes in the Multi store model of the memory
-Attention:
If a person focuses on a sensory input, the information is transferred form the sensory register to STM
-Maintenance rehearsal:
Repeating information in STM strengthens it, increasing the likelihood that it will transfer to LTM
-Retrieval:
Information stored in LTM can be brought back into STM when needed for immediate use
Scoville and Milner (1957) HM
-HM had severe epilepsy and underwent surgery to remove his hippocampus. Post-surgery, he was unable to form new long term memories but retained memories from before the operation.
-His STM was functional, but information could not be transferred to LTM.
Strength and limitation of Scoville and Milner 1957 study on HM
STRENGTH:
-Supports the claim of the MSM that STM and LTM are separate stores, as HM could not transfer information between them
LIMITATION:
-Case studies like HM are unique and lack generalisability. His memory deficits were caused by surgery, which may not reflect typical memory processes
Who was Clive Wearing
-Contracted a virus that caused amnesia. He could only remember information for 20-30seconds but could recall events from before his illness, such as his wife’s name.
How does Clive Wearings case study support the MSM
-Like HM, this demonstrates the separation of STM and LTM, as information could not transfer between stores
The Primacy and Regency Effect - Glanzer and Cunitz 1966
-Participants recalled word lists better from the beginning (primacy) and end (regency) of a list
Episodic memory
-Ability to recall personal experiences or events from your life
-These memories are explicit, meaning they require a conscious effort to recall
Example of an episodic memory
Remembering your first day at school, a family holiday or birthday party
Areas associated with forming episodic memories
-Hippocampus and other areas of the brain,such as the prefrontal cortex
Semantic memory
-Consists of knowledge of facts, concepts and meanings.
-Like episodic memory, it is explicit. But unlike episodic memory, it is not timestamped and doesn’t involve personal experiences
Example of semantic memory
Knowing London is the capital of England, understanding the meaning of words or that water boils at 100 degrees
What part is semantic memory associated with
The temporal lobe
Procedural memory
-Memory for skills and actions. These memories are implicit.
-They enable us to perform tasks automatically after sufficient practise
Example of procedural memory
Knowing how to ride a bike, drive a car or play the piano
What parts of the brain is procedural memory associated with
The cerebellum and motor cortex
Who proposed the 3 types of LTM
Tulving et al (1985)
(Procedural, semantic, episodic)
Explicit memory
-Episodic
-Semantic
Implicit memory
-Procedural
Meaning of explicit
-Requires a concious effort to recall
Meaning of implicit
-Doesn’t require a conscious effort to recall
Who proposed the Working memory model
-Baddeley and Hitch (1974)
What is the Working memory model
A collection of multiple stores which actively process different types of STM.
it consists of 3 components; the central executive, the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad
Key components of the WMM
-Central executive
-Phonological loop
-Visuospatial sketchpad
-Episodic buffer
Function of the Central executive
-Directs attention and decides which tasks are handled by the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad or episodic buffer
Function of the phonological loop
Processes auditory and verbal information
Function of the visuospatial sketchpad
-Processes visual and spatial information
Function of the episodic buffer
-Integrates information from multiple sources to create a coherent episode e.g PL, VSS, and LTM
Capacity of the central executive
-Very limited. Can only focus on one task at a time effectively
Capacity of the phonological loop
-Limited to around 2 seconds of speech based information
Capacity of the visuospatial sketchpad
-Limited but can handle simple visual or spatial tasks
Capacity of the episodic buffer
-Limited to about 4 chunks of information
Example of the central executive
-Solving a problem while ignoring loud distractions
Example of the phonological loop
-Remembering a phone number by repeating it silently
Example of the visuospatial sketchpad
-Visualising your route to a friends house
Example of the episodic buffer
-Combining verbal descriptions and visual layouts to imagine a new city
What two components is the phonological loop divided into
-Phonological store: The ‘inner ear’, which holds spoken words for a brief time
-Articulatory process: the ‘inner voice’, which rehearses words silently to prevent decay
What two components is the visuospatial sketchpad divided into
-Visual cache: stores visual data, such as shapes and colours
-Inner scribe: Processes spatial relationships and movement like navigating a map
real life applications of WMM
-Dyslexia: linked to deficits in the phonological loop, affecting verbal rehearsal and reading skills
-ADHD: associated with impairments in the central executive, leading to difficulties in attention and task switching
-These insights have informed interventions, such as strategies to improve verbal rehearsal in dyslexic children or enhance attention in ADHD patients
Outline the retrieval failure explanation for forgetting
-Forgetting occurs when information in the LTM cannot be accessed due to a lack of cues
What is the encoding specificity principle
-This states that. Cue has to be both present at encoding (when we learn the material) and present during retrieval ( when we are recalling it)
If the cues available at encoding and retrieval are different or entirely absent, forgetting occurs
Who proposed the encoding specificity principle
Tulving (1983)
Types of cues (retrieval failure)
-Context dependent : forgetting occurs when the environment during recall is different from the environment you were in when you learnt the information
-State dependent: Forgetting occurs when your mood or physiological state during recall is different from the mood you were in when you learnt the material
Godden and Baddeley (1975) context dependent forgetting
Deep sea divers learned word lists and were later asked to recall them
-Condition 1- learn on land- recall on land
-Condition 2- learn on land- recall underwater
-Condition 3- learn underwater- recall on land
-Condition 4- learn underwater- recall underwater
Results: Recall accuracy was 40% lower in conditions 2 an 3 ( mismatched contexts) than in conditions 1 and 4
Retrieval failure was due to absence of encoded context cues at time of recall- material was not accessible (forgotten)
Carter and Cassaday (1998) State dependent forgetting
Participants learned lists of words and later recalled them.
-Condition 1 : learn when on drug- recall on drug
-Condition 2: Learn when on drug- recall not on drug
-Condition 3: learn when not on drug- recall on drug
-Condition 4: learn when not on drug- recall not on drug
Results: recall accuracy was significantly worse in conditions 2 and 3 (mismatched cues) compared with condition 1 and 4 (matched cues)
When the cues at encoding are absent at retrieval then there is more forgetting
What is intereference
-Interference is when two pieces of information disrupt each other, leading to forgetting
What is retroactive interference
When new information disrupts information that has already been stored
What is proactive interference
-Information that has already been learnt disrupts new information that you are trying to learn, causing forgetting
McGeoch and McDonald (1931)- interference theory supporting study
-Participants were asked to learn a list of words to 100% accuracy. They were then given a new list to learn. The new material varied in the degree to which it was similar to the old
-Group 1: synonyms- words had the same meanings as the originals
-Group 2: antonyms- words had opposite meanings to the originals
-Group 3: unrelated- words unrelated to original ones
-Group 4: constant syllables
-Group 5: 3 digit numbers
-Group 6: no new list- participants just rested (control condition)
-Performance depended on the nature of the second list. The most similar material (synonyms) produced the worst recall
-This shows that interference is strongest when the memories are similar
Why is interference worse when memories are similar
-In proactive interference previously stored information makes new information more difficult to store
-In retroactive interference new information overwrites previous memories which are similar to
