Antiarrhythmic Flashcards

1
Q

What are the various classes of anti-arrhythmics?

A

a. Class I: Fast Sodium Channel Blockers
b. Class II: Beta-Adrenergic Antagonists
c. Class III: Inhibitors of Repolarization
d. Class IV: Calcium Channel Blockers
e. Other: (adenosine, digitalis, etc.)

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2
Q

Conduction system of the heart?

A
  • Sinoatrial (SA) node
  • Atria- pauses at AV node
  • Atrioventricular (AV) node
  • Bundle of His
  • Bundle Branches
  • Purkinje fibers
  • Ventricles
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3
Q

What is the action potential in cardiac myocytes?

A
  • Phase 0 rapid depolarization - (-60 is threshold with all or nothing depolarization)
    • fast sodium channels open;
    • fast inward flow of Na+;
    • closing K+ channels )
  • Phase 1 begin repolarization
    • sodium channels close
    • K+ channels open
  • Phase 2 plateau (where class II antiarrhythmics work and Class Iv (CCB))
    • slow calcium channels open
    • slow inward flow of Ca2+
  • Phase 3 repolarization (Where Class III antiarrhtyhmics work)
    • calcium channels close
    • potassium channels open
    • slow outward K+ current
  • Phase 4 pacemaker potential; return to resting membrane potentials
    • combo increased inward current and decreased outward current
    • occurs most rapidly in SA node, but all myocardial cells capable
  • Refractory period (phases 1-3) (periods of repolarization)
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4
Q

What occurs during NSR?

A
  • Sinoatrial node is cardiac pacemaker
  • Normal sinus rhythm 60-100 beats/min
  • Depolarization triggers depolarization of atrial myocardium
  • Conducts more slowly through AV node
  • Conducts rapidly through His bundles and Purkinje fibers
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5
Q

What occurs during SA/AV node action potential?

A

Phase 0- Ca is major ion causing depolarization at the nodes (Na in myocytes)- kinetics of Ca is slower than Na

  • upstroke
  • Critical firing threshold (-40mV)
  • Slower and Ca2+ mediated

Phase 3

  • Repolarization
  • Inactivation of Ca2+ and Na+ channels
  • Activation of K+ channels

Phase 4

  • Gradual depolarization
  • Slow inward Na+ (If funny current) and Ca2+ currents
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6
Q

What is the effect of SNS and PSNS on SA node?

A
  • SA Node rate controlled by autonomic nervous system
  • Sympathetic system stimulation
    • (ß1 receptors activated)
    • Increases catecholamines
    • Increased heart rate (positive chronotropic effect)
    • Increased automaticity
    • Facilitation of conduction of AV node
  • Parasympathetic system predominates- at rest, vagal tone of PSNS
    • (M2 muscarinic receptors)
    • Decreases heart rate
    • Inhibits AV conduction
    • Reduced automacity
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7
Q

How are arrhythmias classified?

A
  • An arrhythmia is a disturbance in the electrical activity of the heart
  • Classified according to:
    • Site of origin of abnormality (atrial/ junctional / ventricular)
    • Complexes on ECG (narrow/broad)
    • Heart rhythm (regular/irregular)
    • Heart rate is increased or decreased
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8
Q

Mechanism of Arrhythmia Production?

A
  • Altered automaticity - latent pacemaker cells take over the SA node’s role; escape beats (ectopic)
    • caused by excessive SNS activity (ie epinephrine bolus)
      • increase stage 4 depolarization in cells other than SA node
    • ischemic cell can take over as pacemaker
  • Delayed after-depolarization - normal action potential of cardiac cell triggers a train of abnormal depolarizations
    • main cause is high calcium levels, triggering inward current and train abnormal AP
      • Too much Ca, activated Na/Ca exchanger (1 Ca outward and 3 Na inward- net charge 1)–> reach threshold and inappropratie firing
    • Also hypokalemia, and prolonged QT interval
  • Re-entry - refractory tissue reactivated repeatedly and rapidly due to unidirectional block, which causes abnormal continuous circuit
    • abnormal tissue, WPW,- abnormal conduciton pathway
    • infarction- dead myocardial tissue that doesn’t conduct impulse and impulses have to travel around it
  • Conduction block – impulse fail to propagate in non-conducting tissue
    • fibrosis, ischemic damage to conducting system
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9
Q

Factors that can underlie cardiac arrhythmias?

A
  • Arterial hypoxemia
  • Electrolyte imbalance
  • Acid-base abnormalities
  • Myocardial ischemia
  • Altered sympathetic nervous system activity
  • Bradycardia
  • Administration of certain drugs
  • Enlargement of a failing ventricle
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10
Q

When do we treat arrhythmias?

A
  • They cannot be corrected by the removing the precipitating cause
  • Hemodynamic function is compromised
  • The disturbance predisposes to more serious cardiac arrhythmias or co-morbidities
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11
Q

Management of arrhythmias?

A
  • Acute management (clinical assessment of patient and diagnosis)
  • Chronic treatment
  • Prophylaxis treatment
  • Non-pharmacological (vagal maneuver, cardioversion, reentry- RFCA of pathway, defibrillators)
  • Pharmacological (some antiarrhythmic drugs are also proarrhythmic)
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12
Q

Non pharmacologicla treatment of arrhythmias?

A
  • Acute
    • Vagal maneuvers
    • Cardioversion
  • Prophylaxis
    • Radiofrequency catheter ablation
    • Implantable defibrillator
  • Pacing (external, temporary, permanent)
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13
Q

What are the Vaughan Williams Classification of Antiarrhythmic drugs?

A
  • Class I: Sodium channel blockers
    • Ia- ex disopyramide - Na-channel block intermediate dissociation
    • Ib- lidocaine- Na channel block fast dissociation
    • Ic- Flecainide- sodium channel block slow dissociation
  • Class II: Beta adrenergic blockers
  • Class III: Potassium channel blockers
  • Class IV: Calcium channel blockers
  • Class V: Unclassified drugs
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14
Q

What are some drugs unclassified in Vuaghan Williams system?

A
  • Atropine
  • Adrenaline (epinephrine)
  • isoprenaline (isoproteronol)
  • digoxin
  • adenosine
  • Calcium cholorid
  • Magnesium chloride
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15
Q

What is MOA of Class I antiarrhythmic agents?

A
  • Block sodium channels
  • Blocks inward sodium ion flow during depolarization which will slow conduction rate and result in suppression of the maximum upstroke velocity (V max) of the cardiac action potential
    • bind alpha subunit on sodium channel
    • bind more strongly in open, inactivated state
    • lidocaine binds preferentially inactivated state
    • do not bind readily in rested state
    • “use dependent block”
  • Slows conduction
  • Depresses Phase 0
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16
Q

MOA Class IA agents? Examples?

A
  • Intermediate Na+ channel blocker (intermediate dissociation)
  • Decrease depolarization rate (phase 0)
  • Slows conduction velocity
  • Increase refractory period (prolonged repolarization)
  • Increase AP duration
  • Decreased automaticity
  • Examples:(more historical)
    • Quinidine –Not currently available in US
    • Procainamide
    • Disopyramide
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17
Q

What is procainamide use? dose? s/e?

A
  • Class IA
  • Used in the treatment of ventricular tachyarrhythmias (less effective with atrial)
  • Dose: Loading 100 mg every 5 minutes until rate controlled (max 15 mg/kg); then infusion 2-6 mg/min
  • Side effects:
    • Myocardial depression leading to hypotension
    • Sydrome that resembles lupus erythematosus
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18
Q

What is disopyramide? uses? s/e?

A
  • Class Ia
  • Used in the treatment of both atrial and ventricular tachyarrhythmias
  • Oral agent
  • Side effects:
    • Significant myocardial depressant effects
    • Anticholinergic effects, which result in blurred vision, dry mouth, constipation, and urinary retention
      • off target effect, independent Na chanel
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19
Q

What are class IB agents? their effects? examples?

A

Fast Na+ channel blocker (fast dissociation)

  • Decreases AP duration
  • Decreases effective refractory period
  • Produces little effect on maximum velocity depolarization rate
    • because fast dissociation
  • Decreases automaticity (particularly in ectopic ischemic cells)
    • useful for ischemic myocytes
    • preferentially block cells ifring rapidly and leave normal sinus rhythm intact
    • bind selectively to inactivated channels and associate/dissociate very quickly
  • Examples:
    • Lidocaine - Class IB Prototype
    • Mexiletine
    • Tocainide
    • Phenytoin
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20
Q

Lidocaine class? Use?

A
  • Class IB antiarrhythmic
  • Used in the treatment of ventricular arrhythmias
    • Used in acute treatment of ventricular dysrhythmias in immediate aftermath of MI (Rang & Dale, 7th ed. p 256)
    • Is no longer recommended for preventing ventricular fibrillation after acute MI (Stoelting, 8th ed. P. 523)
  • Particularly effective in suppression reentry rhythms: ventricular tachycardia, fibrillation, PVCs
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21
Q

Lidocaine dose, max dose? metabolism?

A
  • Dose: 2 mg/kg IV, infusion 1-4 mg/min
    • (max dose 3 mg/kg)
  • Therapeutic plasma concentration 1-5 ug/mL
  • Hepatic metabolism
    • Active metabolite with antiarrhythmic activity
    • Metabolism may be impaired by drugs such as cimetidine and propanolol, or physiologic altering conditions such CHF, acute MI, liver dysfunctioin, GA; or can be induced by drugs like barbiturates, phenytoin, or rifampin
    • dependent on hepatic blood flow for metabolism
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22
Q

Lidocaine adverse effects

A
  • hypotension
  • bradycardia
  • seizures- inhibiting the inhibitors
  • CNS depression
  • drowsiness, dizziness
  • lightheadedness
  • tinnitus
  • confusion
  • apnea,
  • myocardial depression,
  • sinus arrest, heart block
  • ventilatory depression
  • cardiac arrest
  • can augment preexisting neuromuscular blockade
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23
Q

What is Mexilitetine?

A
  • Class IB antiarrhtyhmic
  • Orally effective amine analogue of lidocaine
  • Used in treatment of chronic ventricular tachyarrhythmias
  • 150-200 mg Q 8hrs
  • Used in chronic pain treatment also
24
Q

Phenytoin class, use?

A
  • Class IB
  • Used in treatment of ventricular arrhythmias associated with digitalis toxicity
    • Maybe torsades de pointes and ventricular tachycardias with prolonged QTc interval
25
Phenytoin dose, therpeutic levels, adverse effects?
* Dose: 100 mg (1.5 mg/kg IV) every 5 min., up to 10-15 mg/kg (max dose 1,000 mg) * Can precipitate in D5W; mix in NS * Pain or thrombosis when given in small peripheral IV * Therapeutic blood levels **10-18 mcg/mL** * Adverse effects: * CNS disturbances * partially inhibits insulin secretion (leads to increased blood glucsose) * bone marrow depression * nausea
26
Class IC agents effects? examples?
* Slow Na+ channel blocker * (slow dissociation) * Potent decrease of depolarization rate (phase 0) * Potent slowing conduction velocity * **No effect AP** * **No effect refractory period** * Decreased automaticity * Examples: * Flecainide - Class IC Prototype * Propafenone
27
Flecainide use?
* Used in the treatment of recurrent tachyarrhythmias associated with abnormal conducting pathways (ie. Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome (reentry rhythm) * Used in the treatment of atrial tachyarrhythmias * Lots of proarrhythmic side effects * *supresses conduction through cardiac cycle* * Long acting * Should not be used post-MI (sudden death)
28
What is propafenone use?
* Used in treatment of ventricular and atrial tachyarrhythmias * Has weak beta-blocking and calcium-channel blocking properties * cross over between class I, II, IV * Oral agent * Has proarrhythmic side effects * *because slow to dissociate*
29
What are Class II agents MOA? Use? Examples?
**MOA** * Beta-adrenergic antagonists. * Decrease rate of spontaneous **phase 4 d**epolarization resulting in decreased SA node discharge and decreased autonomic nervous system activity * Decreased conduction velocity * Decreased automaticity * **Example**: * Propanolol – Prototype * Metoprolol * Esmolol * Labetolol (off-label use) **USE**: * Used in treatment of **SVT,** **atrial** and **ventricular** arrhythmias * Used in treatment **ventricular dysrhythmias** during MI and **reperfusion** * Prevents catecholamine binding to beta receptors * Slows of heart rate * Decreases myocardial oxygen requirements
30
Propranolol class, use?
* Class II Antiarrhythmic Drug- Prototype * Beta-adrenergic antagonist (nonselective) * Used to prevent reoccurrence of tachyarrhythmias, both supraventricular and ventricular precipitated by sympathetic stimulation
31
Propranolol dose, pharmacokinetics?
* **Dose**: 1 mg/min (total dose of 3-6 mg) IV or 10-80 mg po * *huge first pass effect* * **Onset**: 2-5 minutes (IV) * Peak effect 10-15 minutes, duration 3-4 hours * Elimination half-time 2-4 hours * *not forgiving. once you give it, stuck with it* * **Highly protein bound** 90-95% * **Hepatic metabolism,** with weak metabolite * Therapeutic plasma leve**l 10-30 ng/mL**
32
Propranolol s/e?
* Cardiac effects: bradycardia, myocardial depression * Side effects: hypotension, fatigue, bronchospasm, drug fever, rash, nausea, worsening Raynauds, interference with glucose metabolism * *cross BBB--\> fatigue, depression* * Caution with reactive airway disease, hypovolemia, CHF, AV block * *not selective--\> b2--\> asthma, bronchospasm, worsen raynauds and interfere with glucose metabolism*
33
Metoprolol class, dose? pharmacokinetics? (onset, duration, metabolized...)
* Class II Antiarrhythmic Drug * Beta-adrenergic antagonist (selective B1) * **Dose**: Dose 5 mg IV over 5 minutes; max dose 15 mg over 20 min. * **Onset**: 2.5 min. * **Duration**: Half-life 3-4 hours * Metabolized by liver * *crosses BBB* * Can be used in mild CHF
34
Esmolol class, dose, duration? Metabolism?
* Class II Antiarrhythmic Drug * Beta-adrenergic antagonist (selective B1) * *if pt has serious asthma, probably wouldn't use it still* * Dose: 0.5 mg/kg IV bolus over 1 min, then 50-300 mcg/kg/min * Duration \<15 mins * Effects HR without decreasing BP significantly in small doses Metabolism: * Rapidly hydrolyzed by plasma esterases * Not the same esterases as cholinesterases responsible for metabolism of sux, therefore no effect on sux metabolism
35
Class III agents?
* Block potassium ion channels (impact on phase 3 of AP) * Results in prolongation of cardiac repolarization by increasing the **duration of the cardiac action potential** and the effective refractory period, which results in prolongation of the **QTc interval on ECG** * **​***can promote polymorphic VT and torsades, especially when combines with other QT prolongaters*
36
Class III agent use?
* Highly effective at suppressing supraventricular and ventricular arrhythmias * Prophylaxis in cardiac surgery patients r/t high incidence of Afib * Preventative therapy in patients who have survived sudden cardiac death who are not candidates for ICD * Control rhythm in Afib EXAMPLES: * Amiodarone – Class III Prototype * Dronedarone * Sotalol
37
Amiodarone class, use,
* Class III Antiarrhythmic Drug - Prototype * also has Class I, II, and IV antiarrhythmic properties * **Potassium**/ **sodium**/ **calcium** channel blocker, **alpha** and **beta** adrenergic antagonist * Used for prophylaxis or acute treatment in the treatment of **atrial and ventricular arrhythmias** (refractory SVT, refractory VT/ VF, AF) * **2nd line drug VT/ VF** when resistant to **electrical defibrillation**
38
Dose amiodarone? pharmacokinetics (metabolism, therapetuci level, pb?)
* Dose: Bolus 150-300 mg IV over 2-5 minutes, up to 5 mg/kg, then 1 mg/min x 6 hrs, then 0.5 mg/min x 18 hrs * **Prolonged elimination half-life (10-100 days)** * Hepatic metabolism, active metabolite * Biliary/ intestinal excretion * **Therapeutic plasma level 1.0-3.5 ug/mL** * Extensive protein binding **96**% * Large volume of distribution
39
Amiodarone adverse effects?
* Pulmonary toxicity / pulmonary fibrosis- *low threshold for PFT* * Pulmonary edema * ARDS * Photosensitive rashes * Grey/blue discolouration of skin * Pro-arrhythmic effects (torsades de pointes)- *from prolongation of QT, monitor potassium!* * Heart block * Hypotension * Inhibits hepatic P450 * Has Iodine * can cause hypo/hyperthyroidism * vision changes * hepatitis * phlebitis
40
What is sotalol? class? use? s/e? caution?
* Class II and Class III Antiarrhythmic Drug * *only beta blocker that is placed in class III* * Beta-adrenergic antagonist (nonselective) and potassium channel blocker * *racemic- levo isomer= beta adrenergic antagnoist. levo and dextro= class III activity* * *only BB that prolongs cardiac AP and QT interval by delaying slow outward K current (class III agent)* * Used to treat severe sustained ventricular tachycardia and ventricular fibrillation; to prevent reoccurrence of tachyarrhythmias, especially Aflutter and AF * Side effects: **prolonged QT interval (monitor K!),** bradycardia, myocardial depression, fatigue, dyspnea, AV block * Caution in patients with asthma * Excreted in urine
41
What is ibutilide?
* “Pure” Class III Antiarrhythmic * Used for conversion of Afib or Aflutter to NSR * Used to control rate in Afib or Aflutter * Prolongs AP duration and increases refractory period * *by slowing repolarization through K*
42
Ibutilide dose, pharmacokinetics (onset, duration, metabolism)
* Dose: 1mg over 10 min, may repeat * Onset within 10 min * Duration 2-12 hrs * Hepatic metabolism with weak metabolites * Minimal effects on BP and HR * High incidence of ventricular arrhythmias, so need to continuously monitor for atleast 4-6 hours post administration
43
What is dofetilide?
* Class III antiarrhythmic * Oral dosing * Used for the maintenance of sinus rhythm after Afib or conversion of Afib to sinus * Proarrhythmic * Seems to be ok in post-MI patients
44
MOA Class IV agents? Examples?
* **_Block slow calcium channels_** * **_​_**cardiac selective ones like verapamil are mostly used here * **\*primary site AV node-** *helps to slow heart rate* * Blocks slow calcium channels, which **decreases conduction through AV node** (block sponatenous phase 4 depolarization and decrease rate of rise in phase 0 in AV node) and shortens **Phase 2** (the plateau) of the action potential in ventricular myocytes * Contractility of the heart decreases Examples: * Verapamil – Class IV Prototype * Diltiazem \*
45
Use of class IV agents?
* Used in the treatment of SVT and ventricular rate control in Afib and Aflutter * Used to prevent reoccurrence of SVT * Not used in ventricular arrhythmias
46
Verapamil dose IV, continuous? DO NOT use verapil with \_\_\_\_\_ , pharmacokinetics (1/2 life, PB, metabolism, excretion?
* Class IV Antiarrhythmic Drug - Prototype * Calcium channel blocker * Dose 2.5-10 mg IV over 1-3 minutes (max dose 20 mg) * Continuous infusion 5 ug/kg/minute * **Do not use IV verapamil with ß- blocker (heart block)** * **​**overlapping effects and cause AV block * Plasma1/2-life 6-8 hours * Highly protein bound * Hepatic metabolism, with active metabolite * Excreted in the urine, and bile
47
S/E and caution of verapamil?
* Side effects: myocardial depression, hypotension, constipation, bradycardia, nausea, prolongs effects of neuromuscular blockers * Caution: * Myocardial depression and vasodilation with inhalational agents * Can potentiate neuromuscular blockers * Can increase risk of local anesthetic toxicity- *because LA blocks Na and we're already blocking Ca channel* * Together with Dantrolene can cause hyperkalemia * Causes decreased clearance of Digoxin * Contraindicated in WPW syndrome- *will make things worse!* * Caution with use w/ beta blockers
48
Diltiazem class, dose, pharmacokinetics
* Class IV Antiarrhythmic Drug * Calcium channel blocker * **Dose**: 5-20 mg IV (0.25-0.35mg/kg) over 2 min. * **Continuous** infusion 10 mg/hour * Plasma 1/2 life 4-6 hours * Highly protein bound * Hepatic metabolism * Excreted in the urine * **Side effects:** myocardial depression, hypotension, constipation, bradycardia, nausea, prolongs effects of neuromuscular blockers
49
What are some class V agnets?
* Adenosine * Digoxin * Atropine
50
What is adenosine?
* Not in Vaughan Williams class * Binds to A1 purine nucleotide receptors (activates adenosine receptors to open K+ channels and increase K+ currents) * *temporarily hyperpolarizes membrane* * Slows AV nodal conduction * Used for acute Rx only * Used for termination of SVT/ diagnosis of VT * *adenosine is ubiquitous in normal physio. mediator of heart, vascular smooth muscle, vagus nerve.* * *​admin as drug to hyperpolarize* * *works through same K channel as Ach?*
51
Adenosine dose? metabolism? s/e?
* Dose 6mg IV, rapid bolus * Repeated if necessary after 3 minutes, 6-12 mg IV * Duration 20-30 seconds * *causes major pause (one screen worth) from hyperpolarization allowing SA node ot take back over* * Eliminated by vascular endothelial cell enzymes * **Side effects:** excessive AV or SA nodal inhibition, facial flushing, headache, dizziness, SOB, chest discomfort/pain, nausea, bronchospasm * Contraindicated in asthma, heart block
52
What is digoxin MOA?
* Not in Vaughan Williams class * Cardiac glycoside * *inhibit Na/K atpase pump on cell membrane* * *leads to increase intracellular Ca* * Increases vagal activity, thus decreasing activity of SA node and prolongs conduction of impulses thru the AV node * **Slows AV conduction** by **increasing AV node refractory period** * Decreases HR, preload and afterload * **Positive inotrope-** used to treat CHF
53
Digoxin use in antiarrhythmic? dose? onet? metabolism?
* Used for the management of atrial fibrillation or flutter (controls ventricular rate), especially with impaired heart function * **Dose**: 0.5-1 mg in divided doses over 12-24 hrs * **Onset of action** 30-60 minutes * T1/2 36 hours * Narrow therapeutic index * Therapeutic levels 0.5-1.2 ng/mL * Weak protein binding * **90% Excreted by kidneys** * Reduce dose in elderly/renal impairment
54
Digoxin s/e?
* Arrhythmias, heart block, anorexia, nausea, diarrhea, confusion, agitation * potentiated by hypokalemia and hypomagnesaemia * Toxicity treatment * Phenytoin for ventricular arrhythmias * Pacing * Atropine * Antidote: digoxin immune Fab
55
Atropine? use? dose? onset? metabolized? caution?
* Muscarinic receptor antagonist * Used to treat unstable bradyarrhythmias * 0.4 to 1.0 mg IV and repeat as necessary (kids 0.02 mg/kg) * Onset less 1 min; duration 30-60 minutes * Metabolized by liver * Caution dosing less than 0.4 mg * Potential to evoking a paradoxical response * Penetrates the BBB, CNS effects