Global Governance - (Antarctica as a global common 🐧) Flashcards
What are the four commons under international law?
Antarctica.
Space.
The high seas.
The atmosphere.
What is the idea of a global common?
Is not owned or managed by a single country.
Should be sustainable and equitable.
What is the tragedy of the commons?
If an individual country acts in its own self interest without considering the needs of others this could lead to damage or depletion of the shared resource.
Who described the tragedy of the commons and when?
Garret Herdin in 1968.
What is an example of the tragedy of the commons that could easily happen?
Exploitation of fishing.
What are the rights and benefits of a global common?
Managed in a cooperated approach to benefit all.
Climate regulation, economic value through tourism, fishing and cultural spiritual significance.
priority of conservationism.
What are the threats to Antarctica?
Climate change.
Overfishing.
Tourism.
Mining.
When was the Antarctic treaty?
1959.
Who signed the Antarctic treaty?
Signed by 12 countries who’s scientists were in and around Antarctica.
Why is there an increasing risk to the commons?
Increasing demand with and increasing population.
How many km squared is Antarctica?
14 million.
Is the coldest and driest continent.
Approximately how many scientists live in Antarctica in the summer?
4000.
True or false - Antarctica is the fastest warming environment on Earth.
True.
The rising temperatures in Antarctica have caused ice shelves to melt and sea levels to rise. What is an example for this devistation?
In 2023 an ice burg the size of Greater London broke off the Brandt shelf.
Why has there been an increase in human activity in Antarctica helping damage the vulnerable environment?
Increased interest of mining due to increasing populations and economic gains.
Tech advancements have made it easier to extract recourses from extreme environments.
This has increased the threat of pollution.
Why is Antarctica a fragile balance in the environment?
Extreme climate and fragile ecosystems means any change to the environment can have a significant impact on the delicate balance.
Whaling has decreased since it was banned. What countries still Whale?
Japan and Norway.
Why are whales particularly vulnerable to hunting?
They have long gestation periods of 9-18 months.
Why has illegal unregulated fishing increased over the last 10 years?
It is hard to monitor.
Why is overfishing so dangerous?
Threatens Albatross as they are at risk of getting caught in the net.
Overfishing of krill can undermine the entire food web leading to extinction of other species.
Patagonian toothfish is at risk of becoming extinct.
What resources are there in Antarctica?
Iron.
Gold.
Copper.
Platinum.
Large reservoirs of oil.
Exploitation of mining resources is currently banned in Antarctica. Why is there increasing fears over exploitation?
Increasing demand.
What impact would mining have on the environment and ecosystems of Antarctica?
Pollution through toxic waste.
Habitat destruction.
Oil spills are destructive in the long term remaining in the environment for decades due to the low temperatures.
How many research stations are in Antarctica?
82.
What can scientific drilling do in Antarctica?
Disturb wildlife through breeding and feeding patterns.
What does research stations needing fuel and supplies lead to?
Pollution from ships and transport.
Why is waste disposal at research stations an issue?
Sewage waste in some areas exposes seal and penguin populations to high levels of bacteria.
May accidently introduce an invasive species that could endanger the fragile ecosystem.
Poor waste disposal led to the creation of what at Australia’s Davis station.
Waste treatment plants.
How many visitors did Antarctica get from tourists in the 1980s compared to 2019/2020?
1980s - 2,000.
2019/2020 - 75,000.
What fears are developing with increasing tourism?
Could disrupt feeding and breeding patterns.
What are the reasons for increased tourism in Antarctica?
Higher incomes.
Growing demand for adventure travel.
Improved transport.
What is a positive feedback loop in relation to climate change as a threat to Antarctica?
The albedo effect.
How much ice is antarctica loosing each year leading to increased sea levels?
150 million tonnes.
What is the impact of Ocean acidification from climate change?
Severe decline in Phytoplankton and krill undermining the whole ecosystem.
True of false - climate change could change seasonal events such as breading for birds with an increase in invasive species.
True.
What is an example of the feeding habits and survival of seals whales and penguins being effected by climate change?
Adelie penguins have already had a significant population drop as they need stable sea ice to build their nests.
They are also a food source for killer whales and leopard seals so could effect them through the food web increasing competition.
As they feed on krill their population may increase damaging the equilibrium.
How much faster is the warming in Antarctica than the rest of the world?
2 to 3 times global average.
What are examples of countries with territorial claims in Antarctica?
Chile, Australia, Norway, France, New Zealand and the UK.
What is the tragedy of the commons?
If individuals act in their own self interest rather than the global communities Antarctica will become damaged and depleted.
Who are examples of an IGO in Antarctica?
United Nations Environment Program - UNEP.
IWC - International Whaling committee.
When was UNEP est?
1972.
Give examples of ways UNEP protects antarctica?
Supports development of responsible tourism strategies in Antarctica.
Promotes global policies advertising key environmental challenges such as climate change, loss of biodiversity and pollution and waste.
Research and monitoring to understand the impact of human activity.
Raising awareness of the importance of Antarctica and its unique biodiversity.
Who are the IWC?
The international whaling committee.
When was the IWC est?
1946 to regulate the whale population and conserve the population.
How many nations are members of the IWC?
88.
What restrictions have the IWC put in place?
Catch limits set. This may be zero if for commercial whaling.
Creation of whale sanctuary areas.
All calves protected.
1982 ban on commercial whaling.
When was the Antarctic treaty signed?
1959 by 12 nations.
How many signatures does the Antarctic treaty have now?
56 all these nations have the right to inspect any activities in the region.
True or false - the Antarctic treaty is legally binding.
True.
When and what was the Madrid protocol?
Strengthened the Antarctic treaty with environmental protocol in 1991 with 45 member nations.
Named Antarctica ‘a natural reserve devoted for peace and science’.
Ratified in 1998
Within the Antarctic treaty what are examples of protocols on environmental protection?
Activities require environmental impact assessment.
Mining prohibited.
Marine pollution regulated.
Some harmful materials banned completely.
Waste must be managed or removed.
Some areas have extra protection.
Flora and fauna not harmed or removed.
What did the Antarctic treaty agree not including environmental protection?
No military use.
Prohibits new territorial claims.
No nuclear activity.
Promotes freedom and cooperation for scientific investigation.
What is an example of an NGO in Antarctica?
The Antarctic and southern ocean coalition (ASOC).
When was ASOC founded?
1978 as concerned about the human impact on the region.
Includes: Friends of the Earth, Greenpeace and the world wide fund for nature (WWF).
What does ASOC do?
Raises awareness of environmental issues and fights for stronger protectionism.
Promotes scientific research, conservation and sustainable use of the area.
Plays an important role in monitoring threats and enhancing the protection of Antarctica.
What are the strengths of the Antarctic treaty?
Lasted over 60 years with no major problems.
Recognised as on of the most successful international agreements.
Promotes scientific research and environmental protection.
Promotes peaceful cooperation helped to prevent military conflict and tensions.
What are the weaknesses of the Antarctic treaty?
If countries disagree on an issue one country can stop a resolution from being formed.
No legal penalties for violating agreements.
Can take long for a decision to be made due to the consensus based decision process.
Up for review in 2048…
What are the strengths of the international whaling commission?
Strong focus on scientific research to ensure data is accurate and reliable.
Collection data on whale populations for the last 70 years. This means there is a large data base of information.
Promotes international cooperation amongst scientists and governments.
What are the weaknesses of the international whaling commission?
Members are free to opt out with no leaving penalty such as Japan in 2018.
Countries can choose not to follow IWC regulations. Norway and Iceland still kill whales commercially.
Loopholes in the IWC regulations such as until 2018 Japan carried out commercial whaling for scientific research purposes.
What is one major strength of SCAR since its foundation in 1958?
SCAR has coordinated over 60 years of scientific research, contributing to key findings like the 1985 discovery of the ozone hole, which led to the 1987 Montreal Protocol—demonstrating how science can drive global environmental action.
The Montreal Protocol is a significant international treaty aimed at phasing out substances that deplete the ozone layer.
How has ASOC influenced policy within the Antarctic Treaty System since its creation in 1978?
ASOC successfully lobbied for the 1991 Environmental Protocol (Madrid Protocol), which banned all mineral mining in Antarctica. The Protocol came into force in 1998 and remains a cornerstone of Antarctic environmental protection.
The Madrid Protocol emphasizes the protection of the Antarctic environment and prohibits mineral resource activities.
What is a key weakness of NGOs like ASOC and SCAR in enforcing environmental protection?
NGOs have no legal enforcement powers. For example, while ASOC raised concerns about increased tourism, visits to Antarctica still rose from 6,700 in 1992–93 to over 74,000 in 2019–20, showing limited control over commercial activity.
This indicates a challenge in balancing environmental concerns with growing tourism demands.
Why is NGO influence within the Antarctic Treaty System limited despite their efforts?
NGOs like ASOC only have observer status in the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings (ATCM), meaning they cannot vote on decisions. As of 2023, only 29 countries hold consultative status and can make binding decisions.
Consultative status is crucial for influencing treaty decisions, and limited participation restricts NGO power.
How have NGOs helped raise global awareness about environmental issues in Antarctica?
ASOC campaigns have reached millions through digital platforms and partnerships. For instance, their 2021 campaign on krill overfishing contributed to pressure on the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) to expand Marine Protected Areas (MPAs).
Marine Protected Areas are designated regions aimed at conserving marine ecosystems and biodiversity.
