Antarctica

Question 1

Outline how Antarctica is governed

Answer 1

• Antarctic Treaty applies to all ice shelves and land south of 60 degrees south (not the high seas)
• ATS (Antarctic Treaty System) states there shall be no military activity or complete freedom of scientific investigation
• Madrid Protocol states there shall be no mineral resources activities other than for scientific research- however, it is reviewed in 2048

Question 2

Outline how climate change is a threat to Antarctica

Answer 2

• Western Antarctic Peninsula warmed by 3 degrees over past 50 years - 5x global average, Antarctica losing 150 billion tons of ice per year
• ACC (Antarctic Circumpolar Current) warming faster than rest of ocean
• Krill populations declined by 80% since 1970s possibly due to decreasing ice extent (they have less algae to feed on)
• Emperor penguin populations declined by up to 50% in some areas due to ice melting

Question 3

Outline how whaling is a threat to Antarctica

Answer 3

• IWC (International Whaling Commission) imposed a ban on commercial whaling when it was founded in 1982
• However, Japan continued under the guise of “scientific research”
• 2014 International Court of Justice ruled that Japan should cancel all “scientific whaling” permits in the Southern Ocean
• However, Japan simply issued itself a new permit for killing hundreds of Antarctic Minke whales each year till 2027
• These whales have low reproductive rates so are incapable of rebuilding their numbers quickly

Question 4

Outline how tourism is a threat to Antarctica

Answer 4

• 1990s around 5000 annual tourists
• 2022-2023 over 100000 tourists
• Ships may introduce harmful organisms
• Damaging environment

Question 5

Outline how mining and scientific exploration is a threat to Antarctica

Answer 5

• Madrid Protocol which bans mineral resource activity (other than for scientific research) is reviewed in 2048
• Estimates suggest around 80 million barrels worth of oil are under Antarctic Ice - worth around $40 trillion
• Melting ice makes resources more accessible

Question 6

Outline how climate change is not a threat to Antarctica

Answer 6

• Ice extent growing on East side of Antarctica
• Over 80% of the world is signed up to ATS

Question 7

Outline how fishing/whaling is not a threat to Antarctica

Answer 7

• Founding of CCAMLR in 1982 launched catch quotas for krill

Question 8

Outline how tourism is not a threat to Antarctica

Answer 8

• More visitors (who tend to be wealthy) raises more awareness for the conservation of Antarctica and puts more pressure on governance
• They can also contribute to funding
• Tourist companies must have a permit from an ATS member country

Question 9

Outline how mining and scientific exploration is not a threat to Antarctica

Answer 9

• Changes to the Madrid Protocol must be made unanimously
• Oil extraction is expensive with extraction costs currently greater than selling costs: $100/barrel to extract, selling for $50/barrel