Antarctica Flashcards
General facts about Antarctica
It’s very cold-the average temperature is -49 °C. There’s also very little sunshine in winter (the sun doesn’t rise for several months because of the Earth’s tilt)
The lack of water, warmth and sunlight in Antarctica means that the ecosystem is very fragile it is easily damaged and takes a long time to recover.
Marine life in Antarctica
At the Antarctic Convergence, there’s upwelling of nutrient-rich cold water. Microscopic phytoplankton thrive here, which provide plenty of food for krill and form the basis of the whole Southern Ocean food chain.
There’s abundant sea life, e.g. fish, seals and whales. Birds, like albatrosses and penguins, survive on the sea life. The marine ecosystem is also fragile - if the population of one species decreases it affects other species.
Climate change being a threat
In the past five decades, areas along the west coast of Antarctica have warmed by as much as 3 °C-one of the fastest temperature rises on Earth.
Warming has caused the ice shelves (large sheets of ice) around Antarctica’s Weddell Sea and Ross Sea to melt. As the ice shelves have retreated, the Antarctic environment has changed dramatically.
Climate change affecting krill
Antarctic krill depend on the environment the sea ice provides. The krill population has declined by around 80% since the 1970s as the sea ice has melted. Krill are the main food source for penguins, whales and seals, so the decline in the number of krill is leading to declines in the populations of these animals as well.
Fishing and whaling are a threat
Overfishing threatens many species, e.g. in Antarctica, the Patagonian toothfish is being fished unsustainably, making it vulnerable to extinction. Antarctic krill are the most fished creature-in 2013, over 200 000 tonnes of krill were fished from the Antarctic. Reduced fish and krill populations have knock-on effects on other species in the food chain, e.g. the larger fish, marine mammals and birds that eat them.
Whaling significantly decreased the Antarctic whale population, which is now slowly recovering. However, whales are slow breeders, so it will take a long time for populations to fully recover.
Search for minerals being a threat
There are believed to be a lot of minerals in Antarctica. E.g. there are large underground deposits of coal and iron ore in the Transantarctic Mountains.
There are also large reserves of oil underneath the Southern Ocean.
So far there hasn’t been any mining in Antarctica. It is currently banned, but conditions aren’t favourable anyway - it is too far to transport machinery to Antarctica from any other landmass and the landscape and climate would make mining difficult and expensive.
However, this may change in the future due to increasing demand for minerals and oil as supplies are depleted elsewhere. Mining in the Antarctic would damage the environment.
Tourism-Threat
Tourism increases shipping and air travel to Antarctica, leading to water and air pollution. There is also a risk of boats grounding or hitting icebergs, which can cause fuel spills.
Tourists can disturb breeding colonies of birds. Trampling damages fragile vegetation and erodes the landscape. Litter and waste disposal damages habitats and can harm wildlife, especially because decomposition rates in cold environments slow.
Non-native species may be introduced, e.g. on tourists’ clothing- these may alter food webs and ecosystems.
Research-threat
Antarctica is also important for scientific and environmental research. This requires lots of facilities, including bases for the researchers to live, roads to transport supplies and places to store fuel. Until the 1980s, a lot of the waste created in these bases was either burned, thrown into the sea or dumped.
The Antarctic Treaty (1959) is an agreement about how to sustainably manage Antarctica’s ecosystems. It has now been signed by 53 countries. The rules laid out in the treaty include
Antarctica should only be used for peaceful reasons no army bases or weapons are allowed on Antarctica. Countries should cooperate on scientific research in Antarctica by sharing plans, researchers and results. Antarctica should remain in the global commons- individual countries cannot claim it.
The 1991 protocol banned all mining in Antarctica. It also set rules to help protect Antarctic plants and animals, regulate waste disposal and prevent pollution. Under the 1991 protocol,an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is required for any new activities.
The antarctic treaty negative
There is no system to ensure all countries abide by the rules. If there are disputes between countries then they are encouraged to negotiate. Otherwise, disputes can be taken to the International Court of Justice.
International whaling commission(IWC)
The IWC is responsible for regulating whaling (see p.142) and ensuring that the whale population is at a sustainable level.
In 1994 the IWC set up a whale sanctuary in the Southern Ocean around Antarctica in order to protect whales.
However, campaigners have criticised the IWC for not properly monitoring the number of whales in the sanctuary.
United Nations Environment Programme
UNEP is a UN agency and is the main institution that governs the world’s environment. UNEP is responsible for reporting activity in Antarctica to the UN.
The programme in Antarctica is run by the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), which aims to stop illegal fishing and conserve the Antarctic ecosystem, e.g. by setting up protected areas.
How do NGO’s relate to Antarctica
NGOs play an important role in monitoring possible threats to Antarctica and protecting its environment.
As they don’t act on behalf of a particular country, NGOs are well positioned to observe whether countries are sticking to the laws governing Antarctica and to call international attention to those who aren’t.
One key NGO involved in Antarctica is the Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition (ASOC)
ASOC was formed in 1978 from a group of NGOs who were concerned that some countries were planning to make it legal to search for oil, gas and minerals in Antarctica. ASOC successfully campaigned to make Antarctic Treaty meetings more transparent, including allowing NGOs to attend.
As an NGO, ASOC is interested in protecting the environment- - it does not have an interest in trying to exploit Antarctica for resources or fishing, and will speak up against exploitation by individual countries.
