ANT Final Exam Flashcards
1
Q
Nakht the Weaver
A
- not a pharaoh, peasant + weaver
- died at 15 (1120 BCE)
- naturally mummified (brain + internal organs intact), buried in coffin + wrapped
- buried in wig with blue stripes, cirrhosis of liver, black lung disease
- 4 parasites: blood flukes, tape worm, round worm, malaria
2
Q
Black lung disease
A
occurs when coal dust is inhaled
3
Q
King Tutankhamen
A
- son of Akhenaten, 1334 BCE pharaoh at age 9
- died at 19, name erased by Egyptians because of father, ironically most famous mummy now
4
Q
Queen Nefertiti
A
- Akhenaten’s wife
- influential in many changes
5
Q
Valley of the Kings
A
discovery of King Tut, archaeological sites
6
Q
Howard Carter
A
- archaeologist that excavated King Tut’s tomb
- Tut’s skull possibly broken by Carter in haste to remove jewelry
7
Q
Otzi the Ice Man
A
- oldest ice mummy (1991)
- quiver of deerskin (14 arrow shaft), long bow
- tools = 3300 BC, Neolithic Era ~5300 years ago
- coat tanned hide, loincloth (goat), leggings, bearskin, shoes bearskin exterior, grass netting
8
Q
Tattoos
A
- Otzi = 61 tattoos (back & lower legs) ⇒ charcoal dust rubbed into cuts on skin
- Qilakitsoq = facial tattoos common among Inuit women
9
Q
Stomach contents
A
- Otzi = wild goat (cooked, not cleaned); bread made of einkorn wheat
- Qilakitsoq = 75% from oceans (arctic hare, seal meat, rein deer, mosses)
- Capacocha mummies = chicha (maize-beer), coca leaves (12-6 months before death)
- Tollund Man = porridge ~12 hours before death
- Chehrabad, Iran = diets: mix of plant & animal products [barley, wheat, chickpea, goat]
10
Q
Qilakitsoq, Greenland
A
- (1972) overhanging rock shelter, five stacked bodies (3 women, 2 boys)
- freeze dried bodies, 4 = perfect preservation
- AD 1450-1490
- women = fairly good health (lice, pinworm, nasal cancer - older woman, soot in lungs = oil lamps, small houses, reindeer hide clothing)
- youngest boy = down syndrome
- Qilakitsoq women married into community, patrilocal
- Museum of Nuuk
11
Q
Thule
A
- arctic hunter-gatherers
- dependent on the ocean for resources
- tech: bone/antler tools, kayaks & umiaks, stone/cold-hammered tools
12
Q
Capacocha mummies
A
- boys/girls (8-16 years old)
- youth believed to be more beautiful, honor to be selected for mummification
- “Juanita” or the “Ice Maiden” = 1995, in bundle, two other mummies found
- found: highest peaks of Andes mountain
13
Q
Capacocha rituals
A
- Inca did NOT do human sacrifice (animals: llamas, guinea pigs, textiles, coca leaves)
- exceptions = rituals (people marched around empire accompanied by priests, killed by damage to head or strangled, given wealthy items)
- beliefs: goods taken to next life
- celebrate death of emperor + birth of Inca son
- site of Llullaillco, mountain top
14
Q
Strontium
A
- isotopic tracer of location, along with oxygen
- analysis = capacohca mummies come from all over Incan country (four quarters of world: “Tawantinsuyu”)
15
Q
Hair studies
A
- batch of hair cut into different sections, from the root to the ends
- root signifies how much time has passed (1 month, 1.5 months, etc.) cut before death
16
Q
mtDNA
A
- mitochondrial DNA, only shown in women
- can help depict maternal lines
17
Q
Franklin expedition, Canada
A
- arctic exploration → North passage, led by John Franklin
- (1845) Greenland, 129 men never seen again
- (1981-1986) excavations, graves of men exposed + relocated [first 3 men dead = preserved]
- 3 men = John Torrington, John Hartnell, William Brane; died of pneumonia, 80-90 lbs at death
- 30 remains found out of 129 men who perished
18
Q
Scurvy
A
sores on gums, loose teeth, subcutaneous hematomas
19
Q
Lead poisoning
A
Franklin expedition men —
- preserved fruit cans soldered with lead ⇒ acids = dissolved lead, men consumed
- bad water filtration on ship ⇒ pipes = melted ice, had lead?
20
Q
Bog mummies
A
- located in Bogs (wetland environ., poorly drained soils)
- pH 5.5-6.5 best for mummies
- preserved because anaerobic & cold environment, plus sphagnan from moss
- tannis in water = tan skin, colored hair red/orange
- most lost = poor preservation
- most = Iron age (AD 400-500)
- 75% men, women & children
- either hanged or murdered
21
Q
Anaerobic environments
A
- slows enzyme & bacterial activity
- limits chemical oxidation
22
Q
Peat
A
- very acidic substance
- bone is made of calcium phosphate
- pH = basic/alkaline
- acid demineralizes bone, organics preserve
- acidity varies in bogs (some warm, some cool)
- peat cutting = organic material = good fuel [not efficient source = fossil fuel]
23
Q
Trackway (Ireland)
A
- AD 650-750
- Mesolithic fish trap, Ireland 7000 BC
- Dugout canoe, Florida 7000 BC
- bog butter preserved
24
Q
NW Europe
A
- peat cutting led to discovery of natural mummies in NW Europe [famous]
- Nederfrederiksmose mummy (1898, Denmark):
- first to be photographed, medieval age (AD 1100)
- stick next to body, peat held down, preserved clothing, mummy lost
- concentration bog mummies also in NW Europe:
- hundreds found (partially preserved, hastily removed)
- not preserved = will fall apart if not in cold/wet environments
25
Q
Dameondorf man
A
- AD 230, found 1900 Seemor, Germany
- decomposition of bone, body flattened by pressure of peat, paper thin mummy
- only skin & organs, skinned tanned from tannic acid
26
Q
Yde Girl
A
- Netherlands AD 50-100
- found 1897, damage from peat cutters
- 16 years old, had scoliosis, was wearing wool cape
- one side of head = shaved, around neck = rope
- likely hanged ⇒ Drents Museum (Assen)
27
Q
Old Croghan Man
A
- Ireland, 270 BC
- found 2003, torso found
- was decapitated, stabbed in chest, manicured fingernails = high status
28
Q
Koelbjerg Woman
A
- oldest bog person, Denmark
- (1941) age 25-30, 8000 BC, skeletonized
- no soft tissues, mesolithic culture ⇒ domesticated dogs, seasonally mobile
29
Q
Tollund Man
A
- Tollund Fen, Denmark 300-400 BC
- hands skeletonized, feet preserved, found 1950
- rope around neck = hanged, hair cut short
- 1.6 m tall, healthy heart & organs, skin retracting, well preserved brain, distended tongue
- no broken cervical vertebrae, eyes shut and mouth
- bogs = worms, cause anemia ⇒ late winter/spring death - pin worm in intestines
- may have been traitor (traitors hung and placed in bogs) or ritually sacrificed
- Silkeborg Museum, Denmark (only head is original, 1950s = bad conservation, body = synthetically made)
30
Q
Thanksgiving
A
- colonists (England 1620s) have hard time making living = Wampanoag teach to grow maize
- plymouth rock = oral history & myth today
- letter (England 1621) = “good harvest”
- Wampanoag = deer + fowl to feed colonists, myth = pilgrims are heroes
- pilgrims do not wear buckles, Wampanoag = access to European goods in exchange for help fighting against neighbors Narragansett
- disease = Wampanoag outnumbered
- importance of Thanksgiving (social connections, curiosity, & respect for cultures)
- “traditional” North American Indian food = turkey, cranberry, pumpkin
- culture evolves, borrows ideas and blends
31
Q
Archaeological aspect to Thanksgiving
A
- feasting = building community
- Neolithic feasting 5000 BP = animal bones and artifacts found (Durrington Walls, England)
- competitive feasting = builds status
- caddoan bowls, pipes, Arkansas 500 BP [smashed bowls]
- deer bone 1930s
- displays of wealth + power = gain followers
- Archaeologists look for = alcohol, rare foods, smashed goods
- ex: NW Potlatch [chiefs = prestige with bigger feasts]
- ^dancing, eating, celebrating (burn or smashing goods), want to outdo potlatches
32
Q
Sodium chloride
A
- common mineral on Earth
- sometimes concentrated = lakebed, intrusive plume of oceanic water
- salts = components of blood, sweat, tears
- digestion: chlorine for hydrochloric acid [nervous system: transmits electrical signals]
- waste removal — sodium binds urine
- minimum physiological salt requirement: 1500 mg salt/day (Americans 7-10x that)
- ^could be because evolutionary past = poor in salts
- salt used to be main way of preserving food, before refrigeration [cured meats]
- salt = widely traded over the world
33
Q
Salt mummies
A
- salts bind to water (draws water from body)
- bacteria does not have access to H2O = preservation
- dead buried in salt rich soils [1200-500 BC Tarim Basin, China (salty soils, arid climate)]
- salt = artificially preserve [ex: Egyptian use of natron]
34
Q
Chehrabad Iran
A
- NW Iran 2004-2009
- salt mine with 5 men, 400 BC (3 men); AD 200 (2 men)
- roof collapse = miners trapped + buried in gear
- dyes & colors preserved, leather boot + pant leg
- stable isotopes = miners were non-locals
- oldest mummy = tapeworm eggs [oldest physical evidence]
- exposed to parasites and disease = trade
35
Q
Metal Mummies
A
- many metals = anti-bacterial (especially copper)
- voltage difference = bacterial cell & copper
- bacterial cells rupture = nutrients leak (metal ions invade cell, inhibit enzymes from operating)
36
Q
Copper man
A
- skin green = high levels of copper
- 1899 ⇒ Chuquicamata, Northern Chile
- area today = still mined for copper [body preserved by copper, skin becomes copper]
- two others found in area, not as well preserved
- battle over ownership [French operator, American owner]
- Edward Jackson buys = display Buffalo, NY
- long hair = called woman, displayed all over [JP Morgan buys and sells to AMNH, 1905]
- movement of mummy = lost fingers, decomposing [30-40 years old, man mummy]
- died in shaft collapse = asphyxiated from CO2
- tried to dig out (tool), copper migrated to skin = stops enzymes
37
Q
X-rays
A
- (1940s) x-rays made [showed skeletal tissue — “copper man”]
- cranial deformation ⇒ occipital flattening
38
Q
Cranial deformation
A
- [copper man] head binding, ethnicity = Andes
- copper man = tools AD 550 ← traced back to Tiwanaku Empire (pre-Incan empire) ← controlled areas of peru
39
Q
Miranda Eve
A
- found in sealed cast iron casket, child mummy
- metal + lack of oxygen = limit bacterial survival, preservation [cool environment of SF, buried with rose & baby’s breath]
- child’s location = old cemetery (1865-1902)
- Odd Fellows Cemetery, 30,000+ burials, exhumed 1933 (city paid for moving bodies, people had to pay for headstone removal)
- hair sample = had hair cut at one point
- 1800s & back then = boys AND girls wore dresses + long hair
- coffin style = wealthy family, floral cross (Christian background), European ancestry
- 15-20 girls = reasonable match (Anna Huck ~2.2 yrs, Edith Cook ~2.9 yrs, Emma Featherly ~2.2 yrs, Bertha Anderson ~5.5 yrs, Lily Droste ~1.2 yrs, Lizzie Meyer ~2yrs)
40
Q
Archaeoforensics
A
- Miranda eve = casket patented (1859 on East coast) sold in SF 1860-1870s
- maps = poor, hard to georeference exact burial
- dentition: decidious, fully erupted incisors + canines [2-3 years old, 90 cm, assumed female]
- no alkaloids in hair, mummy = girl (Miranda eve = no Y-chromosomes)
- mtDNA: I haplogroup = European, I1a1e haplotype (rare) = today only British isles
- nuclear DNA : possible match to living relatives (top 2 girls, DNA samples)
- Peter Cook ⇒ match to Edith Howard Cook = Great aunt [Edith’s sister, Ethel]
- families traced & found living relatives
- gives names to forgotten people, connection to past and ancestors
41
Q
Isotopic analysis
A
- diet made from food + water
- nitrogen isotope = trophic level (starvation increasing)
42
Q
Edith Cook
A
- born Nov. 28, 1873; died Oct. 13, 1876
- 2.9 years old, 1876, late fall death, female (xx. chromosome)
- “Marasmus” = wasted away, underlying disease? starvation
- upperclass family = England, Elizabeth Littleberry 1649
- 1870 Holy Cross Cemetery records (child mortality rates 50%+, 100x lower today)
- life expectancy: 16.2 years old (78 years today) [18 years = 39.2 years back then]
- speculation on death: Edith caught disease, weakened immune system, wasted away
- lots of human suffering in history, medical science + sanitation changed the world, correlation between arch. reconstruction & history, gender expression not same as today, “final” resting place = not true (recycled), society = poor memory
43
Q
Buddhist mummies
A
- mummification practiced in Japan, China, Mongolia, Thailand, Taiwan ~ AD 1000
- Thailand = Phra Khru Samathakittikhun (relatives put in glass case, brings joy to visitors)
- Southern China = oldest mummy Liuquan, Buddhist Monk [death AD 1100, in-tact mummy = organs removed, filled with paper scraps, given name + history] (14th century turned into statue, worship; stolen from Yangchun village, 2015 donated back to temple)
- Mongolia = “relic mummies” 1640s & 1890s; self-mummified, religious celebrations ← displayed to public
- Northern India (Gue) = Sangha Tezin AD 1500, consumed poisonous cycad nuts + lacquer tree sap [severe vomitting & dehydration]
44
Q
Mummies & cultural diversity
A
Buddhist beliefs:
- mummy is not dead
- Sects. of Buddhism, meditation = enlightenment [permanent state, life continues after inanimate, mummy will wake up again]
- monks often display impt relics
Anga culture, Papa New Guinea (Morobe province) beliefs:
- “mummy gallery” = overlooks village, thought to protect village
- sometimes covered in ochre + metal rich clay to preserve
- Process:
- apply hot water = opens pores, empty intestines = body in special hut, rope secured on body, smokey fire made, body fluids collected + rotate body periodically
- body = cooled, Kukia plant extract rubbed on body
- emotional process for family and friends, tell stories about person
Philippines Fire mummies:
- tattoos (geometric shapes, animals: snakes, lizards, scorpions)
- Appo Anno (mummy) ⇒ tattoos inspired modern tattoos
- stopped fire mummy practice (colonists’ arrival 1550s); re-”discovered” 1800s by miners
- Ibaloi ⇒ mummies + caves sacred (ok to perform rituals, ties to past, not ok to loot)
45
Q
Self-mummification
A
Buddhist reasons & process:
- religious reasons, preservation of body
- special diet = takes months (limit food, water, body consumes fat and muscle, drink toxic teas or food = prevents bacteria + flies from consuming body)
- assisted by living = candles + salt dry out & encase body
Philippines Fire mummies process:
- before death ← salty fluids, bodies cleansed = water, rubbed = herbs, fetal position, smoke applied, placed = oval coffins in caves
46
Q
Smoke mummies
A
- New Guinea, Philippines, Australia, some Pacific Islands
- smoke = preserves skin, soft tissues (intentional mummification)
- wood smoke (removes water from body, heat)
- low pH 2.5 = hostile for bacteria
- smoke compounds = preservative (antioxidant + antimicrobial); formaldehyde, acetic acid = antimicrobial
- mummies visited + talked to, brought in celebrations and rituals; sewn skin, plant resins as glue
- Moimango (mummy) restored by son Gematsu [archaeologist working with tribe, natural materials and scientific = acceptable to tribe = preservation; removal of lichen from toes = crushed shell, inhospitable]
- missionaries (20th century): shocked at practice, many groups abandoned process, many hid and kept mummies (Dani Tribe: Eli Mabel and ancestor Agat mummy)
- smoke mummies = link of communication between living and dead, celebration of life, should not be afraid
47
Q
Funerary rituals
A
- all societies have a form of funerary ritual
- help to cope and heal, end of old way + start of new order, differs from culture to culture
- people grieve, regulations in place
48
Q
Western ideas (death & funerals)
A
- death + funeral sanitized; don’t handle the dead [specialized forensics & morticians]
- open casket sometimes, not used to seeing dead = sometimes frightening
- mummies fascinate and frighten, boundary between life and death
- physical body remains inanimate, scientifically dead
- forced to think of own fate
- religious ideas speak of soul, spirit, etc.
49
Q
Expressions of immortality
A
- physical immortality ⇒ some cultures have different methods, does not last forever, statues torn down + decay
- common themes = ancient + modern myths, cross cultural
- ex today = vampires; Greek culture ex: Achilles chooses to die to be remembered instead of being forgotten + inheritance
- immortalization today = autobiographies, memorials, awards/honors, holidays, photographs/ashes, digital
- easy to dismiss mummification as strange and foreign
