Animal Responses Flashcards
What is the Nervous system divided into
The Central Nervous system (CNS) - Composed of the brain and spinal cord
The Peripheral Nervous system (PNS) - Sensory and motor nerves connecting the sensory receptors and effectors to the CNS
What is the PNS divided into
Motor system (CNS to muscles and glands)
Sensory system (sensory organs to CNS)s
What is the motor system divided into
Somatic nervous system: Motor neurones under conscious control
Autonomic nervous system: Motor neurones that control the involuntary responses of the body
What is the autonomic nervous system divided into
Sympathetic system: Prepares the body for activity ‘Fight or flight’
Parasympathetic system: Conserves energy ‘Rest and digest’
Brain
Receives and processes sensory information, initiates responses, stores, memories, generates thoughts and responses
Brain vs spinal cord
Brain - relay neurones - non myelinated
Spinal cord - non myelinated and myelinated
=protected by the vertebral column, between each vertebrae, peripheral nerves enter/leave the spinal cord, which carries the ap to and from the rest of the body
Sensory nervous system
Sensory fibres that enter the CNS are dendrons of the sensory neurones
-Neurones carry ap from sensory receptors into CNS
-Neurones have cell body in the dorsal root leading into the spinal cord and a short axon which connects to other neurones in the CNS
The Somatic nervous system
Motor neurones that conduct ap from the CNS to the effector are under voluntary control
-Skeletal muscles (effector)
-Myelinated
-Always one or more neurone that connects CNS to the effector
The autonomic nervous system
-Not voluntary i.e. glands/ cardiac muscles/ smooth muscle in blood vessels/ airways/ walls of the digestive system
-Non-myelinated
-Two neurones involves in connecting the CNS to the effector
-Can be further divided into the parasympathetic system and the sympathetic system
Where are the neurones in the autonomic nervous system connected
Small swellings called the ganglia
What does the autonomic system regulate
Homeostasis:
Regulates homeostatic mechanisms and regulates the internal environment of the body
Sympathetic system
‘Fight or Flight’
-Prepares body for activity
-Noradrenaline
-Many nerves leading out of the CNS to a separate effector
-Short pre-ganglion nerves
-Ganglia outside CNS
-Increases activity
-Most active = stress
Parasympathetic system
‘Rest and digest’
-Conserves energy
-Acetylcholine
-Few nerves which divide and lead to different effectors
-Long pre-ganglion nerves
-Ganglia in effector
-Decreases activity
-Most active = sleep
Relationship between the sympathetic system/ parasympathetic system
Antagonistic = action of one system opposes the actions of the other
-At rest: Ap passes out at a low frequency and is controlled by subconscious paths in the brain
-Change in internal environment/ stress: leads to changes in the balance of stimulation between the two systems, which leads to an appropriate response
Sympathetic system effects
-Increases heart rate
-Dilates pupils
-Increases ventilation rate
-Reduces digestive activity
-Orgasm
parasympathetic system effects
-Decreases heart rate
-Constricts pupils
-Reduces ventilation rate
-Increases digestive activity
-Sexual arousal
What are the different lobes in the brain
1) Frontal lobe
2) Parietal lobe
3) Occipital lobe
4) Cerebellum
5) Temporal lobe
Frontal lobe
Higher brain functions = decision making, planning consciousness
Parietal lobe
Orientation, movement, sensation calculation, types of recognition and memory
Occipital lobe
Visual cortex involved in processing information from the eyes
Cerebellum
Balance / movement
Temporal lobe
Processing auditory info/ memory
4 Main parts of the brain
1) Cerebrum
2) Cerebellum
3) Hypothalamus and pituitary complex
4) Medulla oblongata
Cerebrum
Region of the brain, which controls higher brain functions such as conscious thought; divided into two cerebral hemispheres
Structure of the cerebrum
-Divided into two hemispheres connected via major tracts = corpus callosum
-Cerebral cortex: thin layer of nerve cell bodies on the outer part of the cerebrum
What does the higher brain thought include (Cerebrum)
-Conscious thought
-Conscious action (ability to override some reflexes)
-Emotional responses
-Intelligence; reasoning; decision making
-Factual memory
The three areas the cerebral cortex is divided into (Cerebrum)
1) Sensory areas
2) Association areas
3) Motor areas
Sensory areas (Cerebrum)
Receive ap indirectly from SR
-Size of regions allocated to receive input from different receptors related to sensitivity of area inputs are from
Association areas (Cerebrum)
Compare sensory inputs with previous experience, interpret what the input means and judge an appropriate response
Motor area (Cerebrum)
Ap to various effectors
Size = related to complexity of movement needed in that part of the body
-Left controls right side of body and vice versa
Cerebellum
Involved in movement and balance
-Receives info from Sensory receptors: retina; balance organs in the inner ears; spindle fibres in muscles
Cerebellum coordinates the fine control of muscular movement
1) Maintaining body balance when riding a bike
2) Judging the position of objects
3) Tensioning muscles to use tools
Control requires learning (Cerebellum)
Nervous pathways are learnt
-Complex activity becomes ‘programmed’ in cerebellum
How are the cerebrum and cerebellum connected
By the pons
The hypothalamus
-Controls homeostatic mechanisms
-Contains own SR
-Acts by negative feedback to maintain a constant environment
How does the hypothalamus detect change
1) Changes in the body’s core temperature
2) Sensory input from temperature receptors in the skin
Responses mediated by NS/HS
How does the hypothalamus monitor the WP
-Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus monitor the WP in the blood
-When WP changes = NF
-Responses mediated by HS via the pituitary gland
Pituitary gland
Acts in conjunction with the hypothalamus
Consists of two lobes:
1) Posterior lobe
2) Anterior lobe
Posterior lobe
Linked to hypothalamus by specialised neurosecretory cells
-Hormones (i.e. ADH) manufactured in the hypothalamus pass down neurosecretory cells and are released into the blood fromthe pituitary gland
Anterior lobe
Manufactures OWN hormones released in response to releasing factors produced by the hypothalamus
RF- only need to diffuse a short distance from hypothalamus to pituitary
RF - stimulate the release of other hormones
What do hormones control
A range of physiological processes within the body i.e. stress/ growth/ reproduction
Medulla Oblongata
Controls non-skeletal muscles (cardiac muscles/ involuntary smooth muscles) by sending out ap through the autonomic NS
What are the centres in the medulla oblongata and what do they regulate
1) Cardiac centre = heart rate
2) Vasometer centre = circulation and BP
3) Respiratory centre = Rate /depth of breathing
-Centres receive sensory info and and coordinate vital functions by negative feedback
Reflex action
A response that does not involve any processing by the brain (involuntary movement) although the brain is informed
-Innate = not learnt
-Involuntary = prevents overloading of the brain
-Fast = only two synapses involved
What is a reflex arc
Receptor and effector are in the same place
Blinking reflex
Causes the eyelids to temporarily close to protect the eyes from damage
Cranial reflex: Blinking reflex passes through parts of the brain although the higher thought processes is not involved
How is the blinking reflex stimulated
-Sudden bright light
-Loud sounds
-Sudden movement close to the eye
Types of blinking reflex
Corneal reflex - used to check if the patients are brain dead as it is a cranial reflex - won’t work if brain is not involved
Optical reflex
Optical reflex
Pupils dilate and constrict in response to light so that the retina is not damaged
-Protects the light -sensitive cells in the retina
-Stimulus detected by the retina
-Reflex is mediated by the optical centre in the cerebral cortex
-A little slower than corneal reflex
Corneal reflex
Blink reflex
-Mediated by the sensory neurone from cornea which enters the pons
1) Cornea irritated
2) Triggers impulse along the SN
3) Relay neurone in the lower brain stem passes the impulse along
4) Signal branches in motor neurones to eyelid muscles below and above
5) Both eyes shut as a consensual response
Corneal reflex pathway
Sensory - relay - motor - facial muscles - eyelid blinks
=Short and direct = 0.1 seconds
What other pathways does the sensory neurone undergo during the corneal reflex
Sensory - myelinated neurones in the pons - sensory region in the cerebral cortex - informs higher brain stimulus has occurred
=Reflex can be overridden by conscious control
Pathway for overriding the corneal reflex
Cerebral cortex - inhibitory signals to the motor centre in the pons - myelinated neurones to/from cerebral cortex
=myelinated to/from the cerebral cortex transmit ap more rapidly than the non-myelinated relay neurones in the pons - so can inhibit the ap in motor neurone
Why is overriding the corneal reflex necessary for some people
Essential for people who wear contact lenses
Knee jerk reflex
Reflex action that straightens the leg when the tendon below the knee cap is tapped
Spinal reflex as nervous pathway passes through the spinal cord
-Involved in coordinated movement and balance
Knee jerk reflex pathway
1) Tap the patellar tendon
2) Patellar tendon stretches
3) This stretches the extensor muscle
4) When extensor muscle is stretched it triggers an impulse along the SN
5) Reflex signal goes along one motor neurone and causes the extensor muscle to contract
6) Relay neurone inhibits the other motor neurone of the flexor muscle causing it to relax
7) Leg kicks due to antagonistic muscle action
What is antagonistic muscle action
Signal tells extensor to contract and flexor to relax
-Doing opposite
How many neurones does the knee jerk reflex pathway consist of
Two: Sensory/motor
-Relay not involved so response is quicker
-No relay so brain cannot inhibit the reflex and no sufficient delay for inhibition
What happens however when the hamstring is contracting
Inhibitory ap are sent to the synapse in the reflex arc to prevent the reflex contraction of the opposing muscle
Name short term/ long term responses
Short term: Behavioural homeostatic mechanisms
Long-term: Behaviours associated with reproduction
What happens when mammals detect danger
the ‘fight or flight’ response is initated
What are the physiological changes in the ‘fight or flight’
1) Pupils dilate
2) Heart rate and blood pressure increases
3) Arterioles to the digestive system constrict and pupils dilate
4) Blood glucose levels increase
5) Metabolic rate increases
6) Erector pili muscles in the skin contract
7) Ventilation rate/depth increases
8) Endorphins (natural pain killers) are released into the brain
Survival value of the pupils dilating
Allows more light to enter the eyes making the retina more sensitive to light
Survival value of the heart rate and blood pressure increasing
Increases the rate of blood flow to deliver more O2 and glucose to muscles and remove CO2 and other toxins
Survival value of the arterioles to the skin and digestive system constricting, while those at the muscles and liver are dilated
Diverts blood away from the skin and digestive system and towards muscles
Survival value of the blood glucose levels increasing
Supplies energy for muscular contraction
Survival value of the metabolic rate increasing
Converts glucose to usable forms e.g. ATP
Survival value of the erector pili muscles in the skin contracting
Makes hair stand up - sign of aggression
Survival value of the ventilation rate and depth increasing
Increases gaseous exchange so that more O2 enters the blood and supplies aerobic respiration
Survival value of the endorphins (natural painkillers) being released into the brain
Wounds inflicted on the animal to does not prevent activity
Coordination of the ‘fight or flight response’ (the cerebrum)
1) Inputs feed into the sensory centers in the cerebrum
2) The cerebrum passes signals to the association centres
3) If a threat is recognised, the cerebrum stimulates the hypothalamus
4) The hypothalamus increases activity in the sympathetic NS and stimulates the release of hormones from the anterior pituitaryCoordination of the ‘fight or flight response’ gland
Coordination of the ‘fight or flight response’ ( Hypothalamus action) Left side
1) Activates SNS
2) Impulses activate glands and smooth muscles
OR
Activates adrenal medulla = secretion of adrenaline = bloodstream
3) Neural activity combines with hormones int he blood stream to constitute fight/flight
Coordination of the ‘fight or flight response’ ( Hypothalamus action) Right side hormones
Secretes releasing hormones to stimulate pituitary gland
CRH = pituitary secretes ACTH = adrenal cortex secretes corticoid hormones = bloodstream
TRH = pituitary secretes TSH = thyroid gland secretes thyroxine = bloodstream
What is the benefit of using the SNS in the fight/fight
It will increase the activity of effectors
How is a prolonged response in the fight/fight achieved
Via the endocrine system - adrenaline
How are the releasing hormones released from the hypothalamus
Down a portal vessel to the pituitary gland. This stimulates the release of tropic hormones from the anterior part of the pituitary gland
Stimulate activity of a variety of endocrine glands
Tropic hormones
indirectly affect target cells by first stimulating other endocrine glands
Tropic hormones
CRH / TRH
CRH action
CRH = pituitary secretes ACTH = adrenal cortex secretes corticoid hormones = bloodstream
TRH = pituitary secretes TSH = thyroid gland secretes thyroxine = bloodstream
Corticoid hormones action
Glucocorticoids (cortisol) regulate the metabolism of carbohydrates
-More glucose released from glycogen stores
-New glucose may also be produced from fat/ protein stores
Thyroxine hormone action
Acts on nearly every cell in the body, increasing the metabolic rate and making cells more sensitive to adrenaline
Important roles of the circulatory system
- Transport of O2 and nutrients i.e. glucose/ fatty acids/ amino acids to the tissues
-Removal of waste products i.e. CO2 from tissues = prevents accumulation, which could become toxic
-Transport of urea from the liver and kidneys
-Distribute heat around the body/ deliver it to the skin to be radiated away
The circulatory system must adapt to meet the requirements of the tissues
How is the heart action modified to do this
-Raising/lowering the heart rate
-Altering the force of contractions of the ventricular walls
-Altering the stroke volume
This is to respond to changes in:
-Blood pressure
-pH of blood
-Stress
Myogenic
The heart can initiate its own beat at regular intervals
Problems with the heart being myogenic
The atrial muscle has a higher myogenic rate than the ventricular muscle
-Two pairs must contract in a coordinated fashion or the heart rate will be ineffective
-Needs a coordination mechanism
How is the heart beat coordinated at rest
SAN (Pacemaker) - initiates own ap
-Overrides the myogenic action of the cardiac muscle
Also directly responds to adrenaline in the blood
Cardiovascular centre
Part of the medulla oblongata in the brain that controls heart rate and other aspects of circulation
-Can change the frequency of the excitation waves of the SAN - do not initiate a contraction
-Supply the SAN
-Autonomic nervous system
-Ensures output to the SAN is appropriate to the environmental conditions
What are the two nerves called, which the cardiovascular centre sends ap down
Sympathetic nerve = noradrenlaine
Vagus nerve = acetylcholine
How does the cardiovascular centre affect the frequency of heart contractions
1) Ap sent down the sympathetic nerve (accelerator nerve) causes the release of the neurotransmitter noradrenaline at the SAN
= This increases heart rate
2) Ap sent down the vagus nerve release the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, which reduces the heart rate
Sensory input to the cardiovascular centre includes
1) Stretch receptors in the muscles detect movement of the limbs
2) Chemoreceptors in the carotid arteries, the aorta and the brain monitor the pH of the blood.
3) Concentration of CO2 in the blood
4) Stretch receptors in the walls of the carotid sinus monitor blood pressure
Sensory input to the cardiovascular centre includes (stretch receptors)
Stretch receptors in the muscles detect movement from the limbs. Sends impulses to the CVC informing that O2 may soon be needed - leads to an increased heartrate
Sensory input to the cardiovascular centre includes (chemoreceptors receptors)
Chemoreceptors in the carotid arteries, the aorta and the brain monitor the pH of the blood.
-When we exercise muscles produce more CO2
-Blood plasma + CO2 = carbonic acid (reduces blood pH) + affects the transport of O2
-sends ap to CVS to increase heart rate
Sensory input to the cardiovascular centre includes (CO2 concentration)
When we stop exercising concentration of CO2 in the blood falls
-Reduces activity of the accelerator pathway
-Heart rate falls
Sensory input to the cardiovascular centre includes (stretch receptors in the walls of the carotid sinus)
Monitor blood pressure
-Increase detected by stretch receptors
-if too high sends ap to the CVS leading to a reduction in heart rate
Carotid sinus
Small swelling in the carotid artery
What happens if the mechanism that controls heart rate fails
An artificial pacemaker must be fitted
-Pacemaker delivers electrical impulses to the heart muscle
-Implanted under the fat/skin of chest
-Artificial pacemaker may be connected to the SAN or directly to the ventricle muscle
What receptors measure changes in BP / pH
BP - Baroreceptors
pH - chemoreceptors
How do the baroreceptors and chemoreceptors respond when bp gets too high
1) Detect change
2) Send impulse to medulla oblongata ( to the CVS)
3) Cardiostimulatory centre triggered to send an impulse along the sympathetic nerve to SAN
4) Heart rate increases
Neurotransmitter: noradrenaline
How do the baroreceptors and chemoreceptors respond when bp gets too low
1) Detect change
2) Send impulse to medulla oblongata ( to the CVS)
3) Cardioinhibitory centre triggered to send an impulse along the vagus nerve to SAN
4) Heart rate decreases
Neurotransmitter: Acetylcholine
What is muscle
Muscles are composed of cells arranged to form fibres
-Fibres can contract to become smaller which produces a force
How is contraction of muscle achieved
Interaction between two protein filaments (actin/myosin) in the muscle cells
-Antagonist (arranged in opposing pairs) (one contracts/the other elongates)
What may the antagonist be in some cases
Elastic recoil / hydrostatic pressure in a chamber
What are the three different types of muscle
1) Involuntary (smooth)
2) cardiac
3) Voluntary (skeletal/striated)
Involuntary (smooth) muscle
Contracts without conscious control
Involuntary (smooth) muscle structure
-Consists of individual cells tapered at both ends (spindle-shaped)
- At rest, each cell is 500 um long and 5um wide
-Each cell contains a nucleus, bundles of myosin/actin
-Arranged in longitudinal/ circular layers that oppose eachother
Involuntary (smooth) muscle function
Contracts slowly and regularly
-Controlled by autonomic NS
-Found in tubular structures i.e. digestive system/ blood vessels
-Circular layer runs around the intestine and its contraction causes segmentation
-Longitudinal layer of smooth muscle runs along the intestine; causes wave-like contractions
Cardiac muscle
Muscle found in the heart walls
Cardiac muscle structure
-Individual cells form long fibers, which branch to form cross-bridges between the fibers
-Cells are joined by intercalated discs
How do the cross bridges in the cardiac muscle structure help with the hearts function
-Cross bridges helps ensure electrical stimulation spreads evenly across the four walls of the chambers / make sure when heart contracts it is a squeezing action
- In skeletal muscle the myofibrils/filaments lie longitudinally in the muscle, which means that the muscle can only contract on one direction
How do the intercalated discs in the cardiac muscle structure help with the hearts function
Intercalated discs are specialized surface membranes fused to produce gap junctions that allow free diffusion of ions between cells
-AP pass easily and quickly along and between the cardiac muscle fibres
Cardiac muscle contraction
Contracts easily and continuously throughout life
-Contracts powerfully and does not fatigue easily
-Myogenic - can initiate its own contraction - normally controlled by SAN
How does cardiac muscle appear under the microscope
striped
Voluntary (skeletal/striated muscle)
Muscle under voluntary control
Voluntary (skeletal/striated muscle) structure
Skeletal muscle occurs at the joints in the skeleton
-Antagonistic muscle action - when one contracts the other elongates
-Muscle cells form fibers of about 100 um diameter
-Each fibre is multinucleate (contains many nuclei) and is surrounded by a membrane called the sarcolemma
Voluntary (skeletal/striated muscle)
What are the cell structures called
multinucleate
Plasma membrane: sarcolemma
Cytoplasm: sarcoplasm - specialized to contain many mitochondria
Contains also an extensive sarcoplasmic reticulum
Sacromere
Basic functional unit
Sacrolemma
Plasma membrane around fibres
Sacroplasm
Shared cytoplasm within fibres
-Cytoplasm allows different ions to move across
Sarcoplasmic reticulum
Endoplasmic reticulum in sarcomere
-Gets depolarised and releases ca+ ions
Myofibril
Long cylindrical organelles
-brings about muscle contraction
-Consists of myosin and actin
Voluntary (skeletal/striated muscle)
How are the fibres arranged
-All the myofibrils tubes are wrapped around and stuck together by the sarcolemma to form a fibre
-Myosin is the dark longitdual bands and actin runs through the whole myofibril
-Each myofibril is split into sections called sacromeres
Voluntary (skeletal/striated muscle)
Sarcomere structure
The sarcomere is between two Z zones
Myosin: thicker filament
Actin: Thinner filament (between each is called the H zone, when the dark band does not overlap)
Actin and myosin are arranged in a banded pattern
Dark bands: A bands (this is where the actin and myosin overlap) (in muscle contraction will stay the same length
Light bands: I band (this is where they don’t overlap) (in muscle contraction will shorten)
What are the thick and thin filaments surrounded by
A sarcoplasmic reticulum
Thin filaments
Actin
Consists of two chains of actin subunits twisted around each other:
Wrapped around actin is tropomyosin to which are attached globular molecules of troponin
-Parts of the mechanism to control muscular contraction
-At rest, these molecules cover binding sites to which the thick filaments can bind
Troponin
Globular molecules attached to tropomyosin
Each troponin complex consists of three polypeptides:
1) One binds to actin
2) One binds to tropomyosin
3) One binds to Ca+ when made available
Thick filaments
Each thick filament consists of a bundle of myosin molecules
-Each myosin molecule has two protruding heads that stick out at the end of the molecule
-Heads are mobile and can bind to actin when the binding sites are exposed
Voluntary (skeletal/striated muscle)
Contraction
Quickly and powerfully
Also fatigues quickly
How is contraction of the Voluntary (skeletal/striated muscle) stimulated
By the somatic NS
What is the junction between the NS and a muscle called
Neuromuscular junction - synapse between a muscle fibre and neurone
-Used for faster ion diffusion in a neuromuscular impulse so the muscle contracts fast
-Many similarities with a synapse
Voluntary (skeletal/striated muscle)
Stimulation of contraction
1) Ap arrive at the end of the axon open Ca+ ion channels in the membrane
2) Ca+ ions flood into membrane
3) Vesicles with acetylcholine fuse with the membrane and released by exocytosis
4) Acetylcholine diffuse across the gap and fuse with receptors in the sarcolemma
5) This opens the Na+ ion channels, which allows Na+ to enter and causes a depolarisation of the sarcolemma
6) A wave of depolarisation spreads along the sarcolemma and down transverse tubules into the muscle fibre
The motor unit
Some motor neurones stimulate single muscle fibres
-Many motor neurones divide and connect to several msucle fibres
-All the muscle fibres contract together, providing a stronger contraction
How is the electrical activity of muscles investigated
Using an electromyograph (EMG)
How does an EMG work
1) Muscle stimulated motor neurones create ap in muscle fibres
2) Electrodes applied to he surface of the skin detect the combined effects of these ap
3) Simple contraction is seen as a series of disorganized peaks on the trace however the amplitude of the EMG recording reflects the number and size of motor units involved in the contraction - more powerful contraction = higher amplitude
The sliding filament hypothesis
During contraction the light band and the H zone get shorter
-Z line moves closer together and the sacromere gets shorter
-During contraction the thick/thin filaments slide past one another
The sliding filament hypothesis
The mechanism of contraction - how is the sliding movement caused
By movement of the myosin heads
1) When the muscle is stimulated, the tropomyosin is moved aside
2) This exposes the binding sites on the actin
3) The myosin heads attach to the actin and move
4) This causes the actin to slide past the myosin
Stage one: stimulation
1) ap arrives
2) Ap depolarises sarcolemma and sarcoplasmic reticulum
3) Voltage-gated Ca2+ ion channels on the SR open to release Ca2+ ions into sarcoplasm
4) Ca2+ binds to troponin - conformational change
-Pulls on tropomyosin - exposes actin-myosin binding sites
Stage two: Attachment
1) Myosin head binds to the A-M binding site and forms cross bridges
2) Myosin filament flexes
-Conformational change
-ADP released
-Pulls actin along
Stage three: detachment
1) ATP can now bind to the myosin head as ADP has been released
2) This releases the myosin head from the binding site = conformational change
3) Ca2+ ions activate ATPase in the myosin head
4) The ATP attached to the myosin head is hydrolysed to form ADP+pi
5) Energy released from ATP hydrolysis returns the myosin head back to the original position
6) Myosin head attaches to the next A-M binding site and the process repeats itself
What is important to note about ATP in the sliding filament model
ATP used to return the myosin head back to the original position not to flex it
The sliding filament hypothesis
Control of contraction
1) When muscle is stimulated the ap passes along the sarcolemma and down the transverse tubules into the muscle fibre
2) ap carried to the sarcoplasmic reticulum
3) Sarcoplasmic reticulum stores/ releases Ca+ ions into sarcoplasm
4) Ca+ bind to troponin and alters the shape pulling the tropomyosin to the side = exposes actin binding sites
5) Myosin heads bind to the actin and forms cross bridges between the filaments
6) Myosin head move, this pulls the actin filament past the myosin filament
7) The myosin heads detach from the actin and can bind again further up the actin filament
What happens after contraction has occurred
Ca+ ions are pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum, which allows the muscle to relax
The role of ATP in muscle contraction
-Supplies energy for contraction
-Part of the myosin head acts as ATPase and hydrolyses ATP to ADP+ pi which releases energy
ATP being broken down myosin
1) Myosin head attaches to the actin filament, which forms a cross bridge
2) Myosin moves (tilts back) which causes the thin filament to slide past the myosin filament
- Power stroke = ADP + pi released from the myosin head
3) A new ATP attaches to the myosin head and breaks the cross bridge
4) Myosin head moves back to original position (tilts forward) as the ATP is hydrolysed
-Releases energy for movement to occur
5) Myosin head can make a new cross bridge further along the actin filament
How is the supply of ATP maintained for muscle contraction
1) Aerobic respiration in the mitochondria
2) Anaerobic respiration in the sarcoplasm tissue
3) Creatine phosphate in the sarcoplasm
How does aerobic respiration in the mitochondria maintain the supply of ATP for muscle contraction
Muscle tissue contains many mitochondria so aerobic respiration can occur
-Bohr effect helps to release more O2 from the haemoglobin in in the blood
-However during rigorous activity the rate at which ATP can be produced will be limited by the delivery of O2 to the tissue
How does anaerobic respiration in the sarcoplasm of muscle tissue maintain the supply of ATP for muscle contraction
Can release a little more ATP from the respiratory substrates
-However leads to the production of lactate which is toxic
-Anaerobic respiration can only last a few seconds before lactic acid build up starts to cause fatigue
How does creatine phosphate in the sarcoplasm maintain the supply of ATP for muscle contraction
Acts as a reserve store of phosphate groups
-Phosphates can be transferred from the creatine phosphate to ADP molecules, creating ATP more rapidly
-Enzyme creatine phosphotransferase is involved
-Supply of creatine phosphate is sufficient to support muscular contraction for a further 2-4 seconds
What is a conformational change
Proteins shape has changed, which leads to a substrate binding/ breaking away from the protein
Stage 1: Attachment
1) Myosin binds to the A-M binding site and forms c
Problems with high BP
Small blood vessels leak
-Leakage
-Increase pressure
-Cell death as cells cannot respire
Why if a person has high BP should you not use a drug that will counteract a blood clot
It will make the bleeding worse
At rest what would the striated muscle look like
H zone wider
Z zone further apart
Compare smooth/striated/cardiac muscle
Smooth
-no striations
-actin and myosin
-Individual tapered cells joined in a tissue
-No fibres
-Slow continuous contraction
-Involuntary
Striated:
-Striations
-Actin and myosin
-Multinucleate fibres
-Parallel fibres
-Rapid contraction
-Voluntary
Cardiac:
-Striations
-Actin and myosin
-Cells joined by intercalated discs
-Fibres with cross-bridges
-Continuous rhythmic contractions
-Involuntary
